historia

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BDTNS – Database of Neo-Sumerian Texts
The Database of Neo-Sumerian Texts (or BDTNS, its acronym in Spanish) is a searchable electronic corpus of Neo-Sumerian administrative cuneiform tablets dated to the 21st century B.C. During this period, the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur built an empire in Mesopotamia managed by a complex bureaucracy that produced an unprecedented volume of written documentation. It is estimated that museums and private collections all over the world hold at least 120,000 cuneiform tablets from this period, to which should be added an indeterminate number of documents kept in the Iraq Museum. Consequently, BDTNS was conceived by Manuel Molina (CSIC) in order to manage this enormous amount of documentation (…) The work on BDTNS began, therefore, in 1996 at the Instituto de Filología (now Instituto de Lenguas y Culturas del Mediterráneo y Oriente Próximo) of the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid. Six years later, in 2002, it appeared online.

CDLI – Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative
The Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (CDLI) represents the efforts of an international group of Assyriologists, museum curators and historians of science to make available through the internet the form and content of cuneiform inscriptions dating from the beginning of writing, ca. 3350 BC, until the end of the pre-Christian era. We estimate the number of these artifacts currently kept in public and private collections to exceed 500,000 exemplars, of which now more than 320,000 have been catalogued in electronic form by the CDLI.

In its early phases of research, the project concentrated on the digital documentation of the least understood archives of ancient cuneiform, those of the final third of the 4th, and of the entire 3rd millennium BC that contained texts in Sumerian, in early Akkadian and in other, still undeciphered languages. For despite the 160 years since the decipherment of cuneiform, and the 110 years since Sumerian documents of the 3rd millennium BC from southern Babylonia were first published, such basic research tools as a reliable paleography charting the graphic development of archaic cuneiform, and a lexical and grammatical glossary of the approximately 120,000 texts inscribed during this period of early state formation, remain unavailable even to specialists, not to mention scholars from other disciplines to whom these earliest sources on social development represent an extraordinary hidden treasure.

The CDLI, directed by Robert K. Englund of the University of California, Los Angeles, and Jürgen Renn of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, is pursuing the systematic digital documentation and electronic dissemination of the entire cuneiform text corpus bearing witness to 3500 years of human history. Collaboration partners include leading experts from the field of Assyriology, curators of European and American museums, and computer specialists in data management and electronic text annotation. The CDLI data set consists of text and image, combining document transliterations, text glossaries and digitized originals and photo archives of cuneiform.

CDLI:wiki
Directly linked to the Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative and born with it, cdli:wiki is now a collaborative project of members of the French CNRS team ArScAn-HAROC (Nanterre), and staff and students in the Faculty of Oriental Studies at the University of Oxford, with contributors in several different countries, involved in researches in history of the ancient Near East. The cdli:wiki is currently funded by the Cluster (LabEx) Pasts in the Present through the project AssyrOnline: Digital Humanities and Assyriologie.

eBL – electronic Babylonian Library
The goal of the electronic Babylonian Library (eBL) platform is to advance the publication and reconstruction of cuneiform tablets worldwide. By offering a versatile platform for editing tablets and texts and for annotating editions and photographs, and a suite of tools for epigraphic, lexicographic and historiographic research, it aims dramatically to accelerate the pace at which the written documentation of ancient Mesopotamia is recovered to the modern world.

The eBL platform is based at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU) and the Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften (BAdW) and hosted by the Leibniz-Rechenzentrum der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (LRZ). It was initially developed with funding from a Sofja Kovalevskaja Award (Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung, 2018–2024). Since 2022, further development has been supported by the Cuneiform Artefacts of Iraq in Context project (CAIC, BAdW, 2022–2046).

ETCSL – The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL), a project of the University of Oxford, comprises a selection of nearly 400 literary compositions recorded on sources which come from ancient Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and date to the late third and early second millennia BCE. The corpus contains Sumerian texts in transliteration, English prose translations and bibliographical information for each composition. The transliterations and the translations can be searched, browsed and read online using the tools of the website. Funding for the ETCSL project came to an end in the summer of 2006 and no work is currently being done to this site or its contents.

KeiBi – Keilschriftbibliographie
The International Keilschriftbibliographie (KeiBi) was first published by the Pontifical Biblical Institute, Rome in the journal Orientalia in 1940 (Orientalia N.S. 9). It became an essential tool for the study, research, and teaching of Ancient Near Eastern Studies. The search for entries, though, proves quite cumbersome – a weakness that all bibliographies issued over a substantial period of time share. To enable better access we hereby present the KeiBi online Database, where all issues already published can be searched simultaneously.

The KeiBi online is made possible with the support of the German Research Foundation (DFG) within the project „Propylaeum“ – Virtual Library Classical Studies. It was developed as part of the Propylaeum module Ancient Near Eastern Studies at the University Library Tübingen, with the support of the Institute of Ancient Near Eastern Studies (IANES), University of Tübingen. Prof. Dr. Hans Neumann, in cooperation with the Institut für Altorientalische Philologie und Vorderasiatische Altertumskunde, University of Münster, provided the KeiBi entries from volume 57 (Orientalia N.S. 69, 1999) onwards. Earlier issues were scanned and digitally processed.

Oracc – The Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus
The Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus (Oracc) is an international cooperative which provides facilities and support for the creation of free online editions of cuneiform texts and educational ‘portal’ websites about ancient cuneiform culture. Created by Steve Tinney, Oracc is steered by Jamie Novotny, Eleanor Robson, Tinney, and Niek Veldhuis. See The Oracc Project List.

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TIGAY, J. H. The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci, 2002, 384 p. – ISBN 9780865165465.

This volume is a study of the evolution of The Gilgamesh Epic, tracing its development through all of its known written stages over a period of at least 1,500 years down to the manuscripts of its final version. The immense contribution represented by this study has been acknowledged since its first publication in 1982.

Jeffrey H. Tigay (born 1941) is Emeritus A.M. Ellis Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages and Literatures in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania, USA.

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TALON, Ph. The Standard Babylonian Creation Myth Enuma Elish. Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2005, 140 p. – ISBN  9789521013287.

The purpose of this book is to give the Assyriological community a pedagogic edition of one of the most important literary texts in the Akkadian language, known since antiquity as Enuma Elish. Philippe Talon: Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium.

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PRITCHARD, J. B. (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (ANET). 3. ed. with Supplement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.

A scholar of religious thought and biblical archaeology, James Pritchard recruited the foremost linguists, historians, and archaeologists to select and translate the texts. The goal, in his words, was “a better understanding of the likenesses and differences which existed between Israel and the surrounding cultures”. This anthology brought invaluable documents together, in one place and in one language, thereby expanding the meaning and significance of the Bible for generations of students and readers. A competitor might be the three-volume The Context of Scripture, edited by W. W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, Jr.

James Bennett Pritchard (1909-1997) was an American archeologist. He had a long association with the University of Pennsylvania, where he was professor of Religious Studies.

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Histórias do Antigo Oriente Médio: uma bibliografia

LAMBERT, W. G. Babylonian Creation Myths. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2013, XVI + 640 p. – ISBN 9781575062471.

For much of the last half of the twentieth century, W. G. Lambert devoted much of his research energy and effort to the study of Babylonian texts dealing with Mesopotamian ideas regarding creation, including especially Enuma Elish. This volume, which appears almost exactly 2 years after Lambert’s death, distills a lifetime of learning by the world’s foremost expert on these texts. Lambert provides a full transliteration and translation of the 7 tablets of Enuma Elish, based on the known exemplars, as well as coverage of a number of other texts that bear on, or are thought to bear on, Mesopotamian notions of the origin of the world, mankind, and the gods. New editions of seventeen additional “creation tales” are provided, including “Enmesharra’s Defeat,” “Enki and Ninmah,” “The Slaying of Labbu,” and “The Theogony of Dunnu.” Lambert pays special attention, of course, to the connection of the main epic, Enuma Elish, with the rise and place of Marduk in the Babylonian pantheon. He traces the development of this deity’s origin and rise to prominence and elaborates the relationship of this text, and the others discussed, to the religious and political climate Babylonia. The volume includes 70 plates (primarily hand-copies of the various exemplars of Enuma Elish) and extensive indexes.

Texto acadêmico padrão do Enuma Elish.

Wilfred George Lambert (1926 – 2011) was one of the most important Assyriologists of the latter part of the twentieth century. Lambert taught and researched at the University of Birmingham, UK, for thirty years, during which period he made weekly trips to work on deciphering cuneiform tablets in the British Museum.

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Histórias do Antigo Oriente Médio: uma bibliografia mínima

HALLO, W. W. ; YOUNGER, K. L. (eds.) The Context of Scripture: Canonical Compositions, Monumental Inscriptions and Archival Documents from the Biblical World.  3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2003, 1553 p. – ISBN 9789047402275.

Two centuries of persistent exploration of the Near East have led to the recovery of much of this documentation, and the recovery continues at an unabated pace. The discoveries made in the field, and their interpretation in the scholarly literature, are brought to the attention of a wide public in three volumes, prepared by leading scholars in all the principal language areas of the ancient Near East. This major publication project will clearly replace PRITCHARD, J. B. (ed.) Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (ANET). 3. ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

William W. Hallo (1928-2015), born in Kassel, Germany, was the William M. Laffan Professor of Assyriology and Babylonian Literature and Curator of the Babylonian Collection at Yale University, USA.

K. Lawson Younger, Jr. is Professor of Old Testament, Semitic Languages and Ancient Near Eastern History at the Trinity International University, Divinity School Deerfield, Illinois, USA.

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GEORGE, A. R. The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, 1184 p. – ISBN 9780198149224. 

The Babylonian Gilgamesh epic is the acknowledged masterpiece of ancient Mesopotamian literature. Nevertheless it has to be re-edited periodically to take account of the enormous increase in primary sources that occurs every generation. Since the last critical edition of the epic seventy years ago the known fragments of the epic have almost doubled. This book collects all the extant texts in one place again, including twenty-three fragments published for the first time. The author has studied personally every available fragment to produce a definitive edition and translation. Four introductory chapters place the epic in its context and examine the name, person and traditions of Gilgamesh and other characters in the poem. The plates present the cuneiform text of all the extant fragments of the epic. The result is a publication which is a standard academic resource.  Available online.

Este é o texto acadêmico padrão da Epopeia de Gilgámesh.

GEORGE, A. R. The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2016, 304 p. – ISBN 9780140449198.

Miraculously preserved on clay tablets dating back as much as four thousand years, the poem of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, is the world’s oldest epic, predating Homer by many centuries. The story tells of Gilgamesh’s adventures with the wild man Enkidu, and of his arduous journey to the ends of the earth in quest of the Babylonian Noah and the secret of immortality. Alongside its themes of family, friendship and the duties of kings, the Epic of Gilgamesh is, above all, about mankind’s eternal struggle with the fear of death. The Babylonian version has been known for over a century, but linguists are still deciphering new fragments in Akkadian and Sumerian. Andrew George’s gripping translation brilliantly combines these into a fluent narrative and will long rank as the definitive English Gilgamesh.

Andrew R. George (born 1955) is Professor of Babylonian at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, UK.

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GADOTTI, A. ‘Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld’ and the Sumerian Gilgamesh Cycle. Berlin: Walter De Gruyter, 2014, XV + 357 p. – ISBN 9781614517085.

Providing a new perspective on the Sumerian Gilgamesh stories, Alhena Gadotti argues that a Sumerian Gilgamesh Cycle was developed as early as Ur III, and that Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld was the first, not the last story of this cycle. Prompted by several texts that have come to light since Aaron Shaffer’s 1963 publication of the text, this book offers a new edition and a re-examination of the composition. Alhena Gadotti is Professor at Towson University, Towson, MD, USA.

FOSTER, B. R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature. 3. ed. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 2005, XX + 1025 p. – ISBN 9781883053765.

Benjamin Foster’s Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature is already a standard among collections of translated texts from ancient Mesopotamia. The third edition of this work is an expansion and revision of the second edition, which has been out of print for some time. The new edition appears as a single-volume paperback instead of the two-volume, hardcover set of its predecessors. Generally speaking, this new edition follows the format of the previous editions. That is, the anthology still offers a general introduction to Akkadian literature, a specific introduction to each of the main time periods of Akkadian literature as delineated by Foster (Archaic, Classical, Mature, and Late), a brief introduction to major text groupings and each individual selection, and a translation of each text, which is followed by a cornucopia of information arranged under the rubrics “Text,” “Editions,” “Literature,” and “Notes to Texts.” As with previous editions, the translations are clear and accurate though not literary, the references to secondary literature are ample, and the introductions to individual texts remain useful for orienting readers in the unfamiliar and often difficult Mesopotamian materials (da resenha de Alan Lenzi, publicada pela RBL em 17/12/2005).

The translator has crammed into this collection at least a substantial sample of the most important literary genres of the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians. It includes mythic narratives, epics of heroes and historical kings, Wisdom texts, humorous stories, royal inscriptions, poetry, letters, and more; the harvest of over a century and a half of work in the field, and in museums and collections.

Benjamin R. Foster (born 1945) is Professor of Assyriology at Yale University, USA.

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FLEMING, D. E. ; MILSTEIN, S. J. The Buried Foundation of the Gilgamesh Epic: The Akkadian Huwawa Narrative. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2014, XX + 227 p. – ISBN 9781628370324.

The Buried Foundation of the Gilgamesh Epic is a close study of the Old Babylonian Gilgamesh poems, intending to show that a lost Akkadian narrative about Gilgamesh, focused on the expedition of Gilgamesh and Enkidu against Huwawa, lies between the Old Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic, as known from the Penn and Yale tablets, and the Sumerian Gilgamesh and Huwawa poems. Fleming and Milstein propose that the outlines of this lost poem can be detected in the existing Sumerian and Akkadian sources and that the creative adaptation of this work explains certain inconsistencies they observe between the Penn and Yale Gilgamesh tablets, which, like most scholars, they consider a pair copied at the same time by the same person. They bring to their inquiry recently published Old Babylonian sources about Gilgamesh that suggest the confrontation with Huwawa was a separate story in Akkadian as well as Sumerian. They are forthright about the obvious problems with their hypothesis, such as that some or even all the independent Gilgamesh and Huwawa stories may well be later than the Penn and Yale tablets, but they are ready with carefully worked-out answers. Throughout, the authors demonstrate enviable analytic skills, attention to detail, and exceptional acuteness of observation, the result being a rewarding and interesting study for anyone interested in the Akkadian Gilgamesh tradition (da resenha de Foster, Benjamin R. Journal of the American Oriental Society 131, no. 1 (2011): 146-48)
 

Daniel Edward Fleming is Professor of Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in the Skirball Department of Hebrew and Judaic Studies at New York University, USA.

Sara J. Milstein is Professor of Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in the Department of Classical, Near Eastern, and Religious Studies at University of British Columbia, Canada.

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Histórias do Antigo Oriente Médio: uma bibliografia