arqueologia

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Um interessante texto publicado pelo jornal israelense Haaretz sobre as implicações políticas desta descoberta arqueológica feita em território palestino ocupado por Israel. Assinado por Benny Ziffer.

In the enlightened world it’s called robbery

Um trecho:

… um detalhe importante foi esquecido, ou quase esquecido: que a escavação desta tumba de Herodes foi realizada em território ocupado, onde Israel não tem o direito moral de escavar e certamente não de remover artefatos arqueológicos. No mundo civilizado, o que Israel está fazendo é chamado de roubo. De acordo com a lei israelense, é claro, o roubo é organizado e apoiado por funcionários do Estado com o título de oficiais subalternos de arqueologia. Abaixo deles ou ao lado deles na hierarquia existem outros, como o diretor da Escola de Campo Gush Etzion. Todos esses idealistas expressaram naquele dia, diante das câmeras de televisão, sua alegria pela emocionante descoberta do Herodium, pois é mais um ponto ganho pelo eterno povo judeu em sua terra eterna no 40º aniversário da libertação da terra, etc. etc.

…one important detail was forgotten, or almost forgotten: that the excavation of this tomb of Herod was carried out in occupied territory, where Israel has no moral right to dig and certainly not to remove archaeological artifacts. In the enlightened world, what Israel is doing is called robbery. According to Israeli law, of course, the robbery is organized and supported by state officials bearing the title of junior staff officer for archaeology. Below them or alongside them in the hierarchy there are others, such as director of the Gush Etzion Field School. All these idealists expressed their happiness that day, in front of the television cameras, at the exciting discovery at Herodium, because it is another nail in the hold of the eternal Jewish people on its eternal land on the 40th anniversary of the liberation of the land, etc. etc.

In Israel and Palestine, archaeology is never simply archaeology… Em Israel e na Palestina, arqueologia nunca é apenas arqueologia…

Nada do que acontece naquela terra disputada por palestinos e israelenses fica sem consequências políticas. O que já foi dito para Jerusalém, vale, em semelhante proporção, para o resto do território: Here history, religion and politics meet. Nothing in Jerusalem can be understood without all three, ou: “Aqui, história, religião e política se encontram. Nada em Jerusalém pode ser entendido sem estes três [elementos]”.

E em Herodium? Vale a mesma regra? Pois a a tumba de Herodes, descoberta por um arqueólogo israelense, Ehud Netzer, está em território palestino ocupado por Israel. E isto pode ser um problema.

Na versão digital da Rádio Nederland, emissora internacional da Holanda, há uma versão diferente da descoberta da tumba de Herodes.

Em Herod’s tomb found near Bethlehem se lê que Wael Hamamreh, diretor da Autoridade Palestina de Antiguidades para o distrito de Jericó, argumenta que a tumba talvez não seja de Herodes, mas do arquiteto do lugar: “It seems that they don’t have enough evidence,” said Wael Hamamreh, the Palestinian Authority’s director of antiquities for the Jericho district. “There is no inscription on the sarcophagus or any other solid evidence for that matter. It could have been even the tomb of the architect of the place.” Isto foi dito ao Washington Post.

O que parece uma reação absurda tem sua razão de ser: diz o texto que já na terça-feira, ao ser divulgada a descoberta, Shaul Goldstein, um leader de Gush Etzion, conjunto de assentamentos israelenses da região, situados em território ocupado, reivindicou que Herodium e a tumba de Herodes sejam declarados por Israel como sítio religioso e nacional.

A coisa toda tem precedentes? Tem. Desde Jerusalém Oriental, passando por Hebron… Os palestinos sabem que não é incomum Israel anexar, ou tentar anexar, permanentemente, territórios nos quais são feitas descobertas arqueológicas que parecem legitimar sua posse da terra…

Veja uma interessante monografia de Terje Østigård sobre as implicações políticas da arqueologia na região da Palestina: Political Archaeology and Holy Nationalism (2007). Livro gratuito e disponível para download.

Herod’s Grave Uncovered

A Hebrew University professor, fulfilling a career-long quest to solve this national-historic mystery, has found King Herod’s grave at the Herodion

Prof. Ehud Netzer of Hebrew University, fulfilling a career-long goal of solving this national-historic mystery, has uncovered the grave of King Herod – at the Herodium (Herodion), east of Efrat in Gush Etzion.

Prof. Netzer announced his discovery at a Tuesday morning press conference at the Mount Scopus campus of Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He explained that a combination of the location, type of work at the tomb, the decorations, and pieces of the coffin led to the definite conclusion that this was Herod the Great’s burial site.

Herod was the Roman-appointed king of Judea from 37 to 4 BCE. He was renowned for his many monumental building projects, including the expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, the palace at Masada, and the Herodium complex, 15 kilometers south of Jerusalem. The Herodium, Herod’s final resting place, is among the most outstanding of his building projects. Prof. Netzer has led archaeological digs there since 1972, and the “exposure of the king’s tomb here becomes the climax of this site’s research,” Netzer said.

The coffin was found broken into pieces, and Prof. Netzer explained that it was likely broken some 70 years after the unpopular king’s death, during the Jewish rebellion. Herod had also been known for his cruelty, killing his wife and children, among other perceived opponents.

The Herodium is famous for its mountain-top structure comprising a palace, a fortress and a monument. The excavations on the slope of that mountain, where the tomb was found, began in August 2006. The expedition, on behalf of the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, was conducted by Prof. Netzer, together with Yaakov Kalman and Ro’i Porat.

The approach to the burial site was via a monumental flight of stairs 6.5 meters wide, leading to the hillside; the stairs were especially constructed for the funeral procession. Herod died in Jericho, but left instructions to be buried in the area known as the Herodium.

The mausoleum itself was almost totally dismantled in ancient times, but part of its well-built podium remains. Spread among the ruins are pieces of a large, unique coffin, nearly 2.5 meters (over 8 feet) made of a Jerusalemite reddish limestone, decorated by rosettes. The sarcophagus (coffin) had a triangular cover, which was decorated on its sides. Only very few similar sarcophagi are known in the country, and can be found only in elaborate tombs such as the famous one at the King’s Tomb on Salah a-Din Street in eastern Jerusalem. Although no inscriptions have been found yet at Herodium, archaeologists are hopeful that some might yet be found.

Wild Goose Chase
The search for Herod’s tomb, which began actively 30 years ago, focused until last year on Lower Herodium, which includes an area built especially for the king’s funeral and burial. However, atop the Herod-era ruins was a large complex of Byzantine structures that took many years to dig out first.

Finally, Herod’s Tomb Estate was dug. Though two monumental buildings and a large ritual bath (mikveh) were found, as well as a large route (350 meters long and 30 meters wide) that had been prepared for the funeral, no sign of the burial place itself was found.

The expedition then started to search for it on the slope of the hill, where it was finally found. Prof. Netzer emphasizes that there seems to be no doubt that the king’s initial intention was to be buried in the estate. Herod later changed his mind, however, asking to be buried within the artificial cone which gave the hill of Herodium its current volcano-shape.

Josephus Leaves Out Detail
The main historical source of the Second Temple’s days, the historian Josephus Flavius, described the site of Herodium in detail, as well as the funeral – but left out the detail of the burial having taken place on the hillside instead of in the Tomb Estate.

A complex of tunnels from the days of Bar-Kokhba within the Herodium mount was opened to the public in the 1980’s. The archaeological excavations at the site, which stopped in 1987, were renewed 10 years later and continued until 2000, and after a second break, were renewed at the end of 2005.

Modern-Day Implications
Residents of Gush Etzion anticipate that the find will strengthen eastern Gush Etzion. The Herodium is located along the not-yet opened Zaatra bypass road between the southern Jerusalem neighborhood of Har Homa and the two Gush Etzion communities of Tekoa and Nokdim.

Fonte: Hillel Fendel – Arutz Sheva: 08/05/2007

Tomb of King Herod discovered at Herodium by Hebrew University archaeologist

The long search for Herod the Great’s tomb has ended with the exposure of the remains of his grave, sarcophagus and mausoleum on Mount Herodium’s northeastern slope, Prof. Ehud Netzer of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Institute of Archaeology announced today.

Herod was the Roman-appointed king of Judea from 37 to 4 BCE, who was renowned for his many monumental building projects, including the reconstruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, the palace at Masada, as well as the complex at Herodium, 15 kilometers south of Jerusalem. .

Herodium is the most outstanding among King Herod’s building projects. This is the only site that carries his name and the site where he chose to be buried and to memorialize himself — all of this with the integration of a huge, unique palace at the fringe of the desert, said Prof. Netzer. Therefore, he said, the exposure of his tomb becomes the climax of this site’s research.

The approach to the burial site – which has been described by the archaeologists involved as one of the most striking finds in Israel in recent years – was via a monumental flight of stairs (6.5 meters wide) leading to the hillside that were especially constructed for the funeral procession.

The excavations on the slope of the mountain, at whose top is the famed structure comprised of a palace, a fortress and a monument, commenced in August 2006. The expedition, on behalf of the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, was conducted by Prof. Netzer, together with Yaakov Kalman and Roi Porath and with the participation of local Bedouins.

The location and unique nature of the findings, as well as the historical record, leave no doubt that this was Herod’s burial site, said Prof. Netzer.

The mausoleum itself was almost totally dismantled in ancient times. In its place remained only part of its well built podium, or base, built of large white ashlars (dressed stone) in a manner and size not previously revealed at Herodium.

Among the many high quality architectural elements, mostly well decorated, which were spread among the ruins, is a group of decorated urns (made in the form of special jars that were used to store body ashes). Similar ones are to be found on the top of burial monuments in the Nabatean world. The urns had a triangular cover and were decorated on the sides.

Spread among the ruins are pieces of a large, unique sarcophagus (close to 2.5 meters long), made of a Jerusalemite reddish limestone, which was decorated by rosettes. The sarcophagus had a triangular cover, which was decorated on its sides. This is assumed with certainty to be the sarcophagus of Herod. Only very few similar sarcophagi are known in the country and can be found only in elaborate tombs such as the famous one at the King’s Tomb on Selah a-Din Street in East Jerusalem. Although no inscriptions have been found yet at Herodium, neither on the sarcophagus nor in the building remains, these still might be found during the continuation of the dig.

Worthy of note is the fact that the sarcophagus was broken into hundreds of pieces, no doubt deliberately. This activity, including the destruction of the monument, apparently took place in the years 66-72 C.E. during the first Jewish revolt against the Romans, while Jewish rebels took hold of the site, according to Josephus and the archaeological evidence. The rebels were known for their hatred of Herod and all that he stood for, as a “puppet ruler” for the Romans.

The search for Herod’s tomb, which actively began 30 years ago, focused until the middle of 2006 at Lower Herodium, in an area which was, no doubt, especially built for the funeral and burial of the king – the “Tomb Estate.” In order to reveal there the remains from Herod’s days, the expedition was “forced” to first expose a large complex of Byzantine structures (including a church), an effort that demanded many years of digging.

The Tomb Estate included two monumental buildings and a large ritual bath (mikveh) as well as the large route (350 meters long and 30 meters wide) which was prepared for the funeral. When no sign of the burial place itself was found within the Tomb Estate, the expedition started to search for it on the slope of the hill, although there seems to be no doubt that the initial intention of the king was to be buried in the estate and that only in a later stage of his life – apparently when he grew old – did he change his mind and asked to be buried within the artificial cone which gave the hill of Herodium its current volcano-shape.

The main historical source of the Second Temple’s days, the historian Josephus Flavius, has described the site of Herodium in detail, as well as the funeral in the year 4 BCE, but not the tomb proper. He wrote as follows:

“The king’s funeral next occupied his attention. Archelaus, omitting nothing that could contribute to its magnificence, brought forth all the royal ornaments to accompany the procession in honor of the deceased. The bier was of solid gold, studded with precious stones, and had a covering of purple, embroidered with various colors; on this lay the body enveloped in purple robe, a diadem encircling the head and surmounted by a crown of gold, the scepter beside his right hand.

Around the bier were Herod’s sons and a large group of his relations; these were followed by the guards, the Thracian contingent, Germans and Gauls, all equipped as for war. The reminder of the troops marched in front, armed and in orderly array, led by their commanders and subordinate officers; behind these came five hundred of Herod’s servants and freedmen, carrying spices. The body was thus conveyed for a distance of two hundred furlongs to Herodium, where, in accordance with the directions of the deceased, it was interred. So ended Herod’s reign.”
Jewish Wars, 1,23,9

Prof. Netzer started his archaeological activity at Herodium in 1972, at first on a small scale. The scope of his work widened with the decision to turn Herodium (the mount together with Lower Herodium) into a national park, which was due to occupy 125 acres. (Until that stage only the mount was proclaimed as a national park and was operated by the Nature and Parks Authority.)

The enlargement of the park started in 1980; unfortunately the activity at the site stopped as a result of the first Intifada, but not before the complex of tunnels from the days of Bar-Kokhba, within the mount, were opened to the public. The archaeological excavations at the site, which also stopped in 1987, were renewed 10 years later and continued until 2000, and after a second break, were renewed at the end of 2005.

Prof. Netzer gained his first “intimate” acknowledgement of Herodian architecture while joining Prof. Yigael Yadin (in 1963-66), in his expedition at Masada. Netzer’s Ph.D. dissertation in archaeology, guided by Prof. Yadin, brought him to initiate excavations both at Lower Herodium and at Jericho – at the complex of Hasmonean and Herodian Winter Palaces. (The site at Jericho, following Netzer’s excavations, includes three palaces of Herod and a hitherto unknown large complex of Hasmonean winter palaces). Additional Herodian structures in other parts of the country were also uncovered by him. He has written various books and articles on the topic of Herodian architecture.

Yaakov Kalman, archaeologist and farmer, participated in many excavations throughout the country and took an active part in Netzer’s excavations at Masada, Jericho and Herodium. Roi Porath took an active part in the survey of the Judean Desert caves and has many significant finds in his record.

The current excavations benefited from donations of private individuals, and the assistance of the Israel Exploration Society and the Israel Nature and Parks Authority.

Fonte: The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Media Relations: 08 May, 2007

 

Todd Bolen, do blog BiblePlaces, escreveu sobre dez coisas que “você” não sabia sobre o rei Herodes: King Herod: Ten Things You Didn’t Know.

Em minha História de Israel falo um pouco de Herodes.

A descoberta da tumba de Herodes, divulgada hoje, é, do ponto de vista arqueológico e histórico, da maior importância. E a notícia vai se espalhando rapidamente. Embora os detalhes só venham amanhã.

E nem falo dos jornais… mas fiz uma busca pela palavra Herod no Google News, em inglês, e cheguei agora, 21h50, horário de Brasília, a uma centena de resultados!

Veja, porém, os biblioblogs. Aqui os títulos estão em ordem alfabética, mas a dica foi dada por Aren Maeir e espalhada por Jim West.

• Amazing archeological find – Chrisendom, by Chris Tilling
• Descoberto o sepulcro de Herodes Magno – Observatório Bíblico, by airtonjo
• Herod’s Tomb – Mark Goodacre’s NT Blog, by Mark Goodacre
• Hold on to your seats! Fascinating new discovery to be published! – The Tell es-Safi/Gath Excavations, by Aren Maeir

Mais:

• Herod’s Tomb and Grave Found at Herodium – Dr. Claude Mariottini, by Dr. Claude Mariottini
• Herod’s tomb and grave site discovered – Bible and History, by Gary Greenberg
• Herod’s Tomb Coverage – Targuman, by Chris Brady
• Herod’s Tomb: Full Report Released – BiblePlaces Blog, by Todd Bolen
• Herod’s Tomb – Initial Report – BiblePlaces Blog, by Todd Bolen
• Herod’s Tomb: Press Conference – BiblePlaces Blog, by Todd Bolen
• Herod the Great’s Tomb Discovered – Ben Witherington, by Ben Witherington
• King Herod: Ten Things You Didn’t Know – BiblePlaces Blog, by Todd Bolen
• The Tomb of Herod: Coordinates – OpenBible.info Blog, by openbible
• Tumba de Herodes: comunicado da Universidade Hebraica – Observatório Bíblico, by airtonjo

Researcher: We Have Found Herod’s Tomb

Herod’s tomb has been discovered near Jerusalem, Hebrew University’s Ehud Netzer will announce today. The discovery of the grave at Herodium solves one of the great mysteries of archaeology in the Land of Israel. Professor Netzer, considered one of the most senior researchers on Herod, has been excavating at the site south of Jerusalem since 1972 in efforts to identify the burial site of the King of the Jews. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem will release the details regarding the grave and its exact location at a press conference this morning.

Herod, also known as Herod the Great, expanded the Second Temple and built Caesaria, Masada and other monumental works. Born in 74 B.C.E., he died in 4 B.C.E. in Jericho after a long illness. Most researchers believed Herod was buried at Herodium based on the writings of historian Josephus Flavius, however the grave had not been found in the excavations. Netzer’s current dig focused on a different area that had not been excavated: halfway between the upper and lower palaces. Until now, the search had focused on the lower palace.

Herod chose to build his tomb at Herodium because of the two dramatic events that took place there during his lifetime. In 43 B.C.E., while Herod was still governor of Galilee, he was forced to flee Jerusalem with his family after his enemies, the Parthians, besieged the city. Near the site of Herodium, his mother’s carriage overturned and Herod panicked, until her realized she was only slightly injured. Shortly thereafter, the Partheans caught up with Herod an his entourage, but Herod turned the battle around and emerged victorious.

At Herodium, Herod built one of the largest royal sites in the Roman-Hellenist world which served as a residential palace, shelter and administrative center, as well as mausoleum. Herod first raised the level of the hill artificially, making it visible from Jerusalem and then built the fortified palace on top, surrounded by guard towers for use in times of war. At the foot of the hill, he built a second palace, the size of a small town, known as the “Lower Herodium,” which included many buildings, luxurious gardens, pools, stables and warehouses.

Herod spared no resources in efforts to make Herodium ostentatious. He built aqueducts from Solomon’s Pools and imported soil for the gardens to the heart of the desert. After Herod’s death, his son and heir Archelaus continued to reside at Herodium. After Judea became a Roman republic, Herodium served as the seat of the Roman governors. With the outbreak of the great revolt against the Romans, Herodium fell to the rebels, but they returned it without a fight after Jerusalem fell in 70 C.E.

Fifty years later, the Herodium served the Bar Kochba uprising but was later abandoned. At about 150 C.E., Byzantine monks settled the place which later served as a leper colony until its abandonment in the 7th century.

The first excavations of the site were conducted in 1956-1962 by a Franciscan monk, who uncovered most of the remains known today. After the 1967 Six-Day War, the area was conquered by the Israel Defense Forces and Israeli excavations at the site began in 1972.

Fonte: Amiram Barkat – Haaretz: 08.05.2007

 

Sobre Herodes Magno, que governou a Palestina de 37 a 4 a.C., leia algumas informações, em português, aqui.

Hoje, em um post meu de 6 de abril de 2006, um anônimo visitante deixou um comentário sustentando não existir ainda Nazaré quando Jesus nasceu.

Confesso que li muito pouco sobre o assunto, mas pude perceber que a tese da não-existência de Nazaré na época do nascimento de Jesus não se sustenta, apesar de ter seus defensores.

Considero, porém, que esta pode ser uma boa oportunidade para se ver como especialistas usam argumentos literários e arqueológicos em uma discussão desta natureza. E também para se inteirar da bibliografia existente na área.

E o óbvio: a discussão foi deflagrada pela “descoberta” da Tumba de Talpiot!

Circula na web, entre egiptólogos e curiosos, uma persistente discussão sobre “novas teorias” acerca da construção das pirâmides egípcias, mais especificamente, sobre como teria sido construída a Grande Pirâmide de Quéops.

Segundo alguns especialistas, estas teorias não são assim tão novas, mas esta pode ser uma boa oportunidade para se ler um pouco sobre o assunto.

No blog Egyptology News, Andie recomenda, no post Bob Brier on pyramid construction, o artigo do egiptólogo Bob Brier, How to Build a Pyramid, no site da revista Archaeology, publicação de respeito da AIA.

Segundo Andie esta é a melhor síntese que ela conhece sobre novas e velhas teorias acerca das possibilidades de construção de pirâmides.

Quem não acompanhou a discussão, leia primeiro, por favor, a notícia abaixo, da BBC.

 

Francês diz que desvendou mistério de pirâmide egípcia

O arquiteto francês Jean-Pierre Houdin afirmou ter encontrado a chave para desvendar os mistérios da construção da pirâmide de Quéops, a maior das pirâmides do Egito.

Houdin diz que a construção de 4,5 mil anos, nos arredores do Cairo, foi executada com o auxílio de uma rampa interna para elevar os enormes blocos de pedra até os seus lugares.

As outras teorias afirmam que os 3 milhões de pedras – cada uma com 2,5 toneladas – foram empurradas até os locais em que se encontram por cima de rampas externas.

Houdin passou oito anos estudando o assunto e construiu um modelo computadorizado para ilustrar a sua teoria sobre a construção da pirâmide.

“Esta é melhor que as outras teorias, porque é a única que realmente funciona”, disse o arquiteto ao divulgar a sua tese com o auxílio de uma simulação em três dimensões.

Rampa externa

Ele acredita que uma rampa externa foi usada apenas para construir os primeiros 43 metros e que, então, foi construída a rampa interna para transportar os blocos até o cume da construção, de 137 metros de altura.

A pirâmide foi construída para servir de tumba ao faraó Khufu, também conhecido como Quéops.

A grande galeria no interior da pirâmide, outra fonte de mistério para egiptólogos, teria sido usada para abrigar um enorme contrapeso que teria suspendido as 60 lajes de granito que ficam acima da Câmara Real.

“Essa teoria vai contra as duas principais teses aceitas até hoje”, disse o egiptólogo Bob Brier à agência de notícias Reuters.

‘Erradas’

“Faz 20 anos que as ensino, mas no fundo, sei que elas estão erradas”, admitiu o especialista.

De acordo com Houdin, uma rampa externa até o alto da pirâmide teria tapado a vista e deixado pouco espaço para trabalhar, enquanto uma longa rampa frontal necessitaria de pedras demais.

Além disso, há muito poucos indícios de que jamais tenham sido montadas rampas externas no entorno da pirâmide.

Houdin disse ainda que, usando a técnica postulada por ele, a pirâmide pode ter sido construída por apenas 4 mil pessoas, em vez das 100 mil calculadas por outras teorias.

O arquiteto espera reunir um grupo de especialistas para comprovar a teoria com o auxílio de radares e outros métodos não invasivos.

Fonte: BBC Brasil – 31 de março, 2007

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How to Build a Pyramid

by Bob Brier

Hidden ramps may solve the mystery of the Great Pyramid’s construction.

Of the seven wonders of the ancient world, only the Great Pyramid of Giza remains. An estimated 2 million stone blocks weighing an average of 2.5 tons went into its construction. When completed, the 481-foot-tall pyramid was the world’s tallest structure, a record it held for more than 3,800 years, when England’s Lincoln Cathedral surpassed it by a mere 44 feet.

We know who built the Great Pyramid: the pharaoh Khufu, who ruled Egypt about 2547-2524 B.C. And we know who supervised its construction: Khufu’s brother, Hemienu. The pharaoh’s right-hand man, Hemienu was “overseer of all construction projects of the king” and his tomb is one of the largest in a cemetery adjacent to the pyramid.

What we don’t know is exactly how it was built, a question that has been debated for millennia. The earliest recorded theory was put forward by the Greek historian Herodotus, who visited Egypt around 450 B.C., when the pyramid was already 2,000 years old. He mentions “machines” used to raise the blocks and this is usually taken to mean cranes. Three hundred years later, Diodorus of Sicily wrote, “The construction was effected by mounds” (ramps). Today we have the “space alien” theory–those primitive Egyptians never could have built such a fabulous structure by themselves; extraterrestrials must have helped them.

Modern scholars have favored these two original theories, but deep in their hearts, they know that neither one is correct. A radical new one, however, may provide the solution. If correct, it would demonstrate a level of planning by Egyptian architects and engineers far greater than anything ever imagined before.

According to the new theory, an external ramp was used to build the lower third of the pyramid and was then cannibalized, its blocks taken through an internal ramp for the higher levels of the structure. (Dassault Systemes) [LARGER IMAGE]

The External Ramp and Crane Theories

The first theory is that a ramp was built on one side of the pyramid and as the pyramid grew, the ramp was raised so that throughout the construction, blocks could be moved right up to the top. If the ramp were too steep, the men hauling the blocks would not be able to drag them up. An 8-percent slope is about the maximum possible, and this is the problem with the single ramp theory. With such a gentle incline, the ramp would have to be approximately one mile long to reach the top of the pyramid. But there is neither room for such a long ramp on the Giza Plateau, nor evidence of such a massive construction. Also, a mile-long ramp would have had as great a volume as the pyramid itself, virtually doubling the man-hours needed to build the pyramid. Because the straight ramp theory just doesn’t work, several pyramid experts have opted for a modified ramp theory.

This approach suggests that the ramp corkscrewed up the outside of the pyramid, much the way a mountain road spirals upward. The corkscrew ramp does away with the need for a massive mile-long one and explains why no remains of such a ramp have been found, but there is a flaw with this version of the theory. With a ramp corkscrewing up the outside of the pyramid, the corners couldn’t be completed until the final stage of construction. But careful measurements of the angles at the corners would have been needed frequently to assure that the corners would meet to create a point at the top. Dieter Arnold, a renowned pyramid expert at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, comments in his definitive work, Building in Egypt: “During the whole construction period, the pyramid trunk would have been completely buried under the ramps. The surveyors could therefore not have used the four corners, edges, and foot line of the pyramid for their calculations.” Thus the modified ramp theory also has a serious problem.

The second theory centers on Herodotus’s machines. Until recently Egyptian farmers used a wooden, cranelike device called a shadouf to raise water from the Nile for irrigation. This device can be seen in ancient tomb paintings, so we know it was available to the pyramid builders. The idea is that hundreds of these cranes at various levels on the pyramid were used to lift the blocks. One problem with this theory is that it would involve a tremendous amount of timber and Egypt simply didn’t have forests to provide the wood. Importing so much lumber would have been impractical. Large timbers for shipbuilding were imported from Lebanon, but this was a very expensive enterprise.

Perhaps an even more fatal flaw to the crane theory is that there is nowhere to place all these cranes. The pyramid blocks tend to decrease in size higher up the Great Pyramid. I climbed it dozens of times in the 1970s and ’80s, when it was permitted, and toward the top, the blocks sometimes provide only 18 inches of standing room, certainly not enough space for cranes large enough to lift heavy blocks of stone. The crane theory can’t explain how the blocks of the Great Pyramid were raised. So how was it done?

The Internal Ramp Theory

A radical new idea has recently been presented by Jean-Pierre Houdin, a French architect who has devoted the last seven years of his life to making detailed computer models of the Great Pyramid. Using start-of-the-art 3-D software developed by Dassault Systemes, combined with an initial suggestion of Henri Houdin, his engineer father, the architect has concluded that a ramp was indeed used to raise the blocks to the top, and that the ramp still exists–inside the pyramid!

The theory suggests that for the bottom third of the pyramid, the blocks were hauled up a straight, external ramp. This ramp was far shorter than the one needed to reach the top, and was made of limestone blocks, slightly smaller than those used to build the bottom third of the pyramid. As the bottom of the pyramid was being built via the external ramp, a second ramp was being built, inside the pyramid, on which the blocks for the top two-thirds of the pyramid would be hauled. The internal ramp, according to Houdin, begins at the bottom, is about 6 feet wide, and has a grade of approximately 7 percent. This ramp was put into use after the lower third of the pyramid was completed and the external ramp had served its purpose.

The design of the internal ramp was partially determined by the design of the interior of the pyramid. Hemienu knew all about the problems encountered by Pharaoh Sneferu, his and Khufu’s father. Sneferu had considerable difficulty building a suitable pyramid for his burial, and ended up having to construct three at sites south of Giza! The first, at Meidum, may have had structural problems and was never used. His second, at Dashur–known as the Bent Pyramid because the slope of its sides changes midway up–developed cracks in the walls of its burial chamber. Huge cedar logs from Lebanon had to be wedged between the walls to keep the pyramid from collapsing inward, but it too was abandoned. There must have been a mad scramble to complete Sneferu’s third and successful pyramid, the distinctively colored Red Pyramid at Dashur, before the aging ruler died.

From the beginning, Hemienu planned three burial chambers to ensure that whenever Khufu died, a burial place would be ready. One was carved out of the bedrock beneath the pyramid at the beginning of its construction. In case the pharaoh had died early, this would have been his tomb. When, after about five years, Khufu was still alive and well, the unfinished underground burial chamber was abandoned and the second burial chamber, commonly called the Queen’s Chamber, was begun. Some time around the fifteenth year of construction Khufu was still healthy and this chamber was abandoned unfinished and the last burial chamber, the King’s Chamber, was built higher up–in the center of the pyramid. (To this day, Khufu’s sarcophagus remains inside the King’s Chamber, so early explorers of the pyramid incorrectly assumed that the second chamber had been for his queen.)

Huge granite and limestone blocks were needed for the roof beams and rafters of the Queen’s and King’s Chambers. Some of these beams weigh more than 60 tons and are far too large to have been brought up through the internal ramp. Thus the external ramp had to remain in use until the large blocks were hauled up. Once that was done, the external ramp was dismantled and its blocks were led up the pyramid via the internal ramp to build the top two-thirds of the pyramid. Perhaps most blocks in this portion of the pyramid are smaller than those at the bottom third because they had to move up the narrow internal ramp.

There were several considerations that went into designing the internal ramp. First, it had to be fashioned very precisely so that it didn’t hit the chambers or the internal passageways that connect them. Second, men hauling heavy blocks of stones up a narrow ramp can’t easily turn a 90-degree corner; they need a place ahead of the block to stand and pull. The internal ramp had to provide a means of turning its corners so, Houdin suggests, the ramp had openings there where a simple crane could be used to turn the blocks.

There are plenty of theories about how the Great Pyramid could have been built that lack evidence. Is the internal ramp theory any different? Is there any evidence to support it? Yes.

A bit of evidence appears to be one of the ramp’s corner notches used for turning blocks. It is two-thirds of the way up the northeast corner–precisely at a point where Houdin predicted there would be one. Furthermore, in 1986 a member of a French team that was surveying the pyramid reported seeing a desert fox enter it through a hole next to the notch, suggesting that there is an open area close to it, perhaps the ramp. It seems improbable that the fox climbed more than halfway up the pyramid. More likely there is some undetected crevice toward the bottom where the fox entered the ramp and then made its way up the ramp and exited near the notch. It would be interesting to attach a telemetric device to a fox and send him into the hole to monitor his movements! The notch is suggestive, but there is another bit of evidence supplied by the French mentioned earlier that is far more compelling.

When the French team surveyed the Great Pyramid, they used microgravimetry, a technique that enabled them to measure the density of different sections of the pyramid, thus detecting hidden chambers. The French team concluded that there were no large hidden chambers inside it. If there was a ramp inside the pyramid, shouldn’t the French have detected it? In 2000, Henri Houdin was presenting this theory at a scientific conference where one of the members of the 1986 French team was present. He mentioned to Houdin that their computer analysis of the pyramid did yield one curious image, something they couldn’t interpret and therefore ignored. That image showed exactly what Jean-Pierre Houdin’s theory had predicted–a ramp spiraling up through the pyramid.

Far from being just another theory, the internal ramp has considerable evidence behind it. A team headed by Jean-Pierre Houdin and Rainer Stadlemann, former director of the German Archaeological Institute in Cairo and one of the greatest authorities on pyramids, has submitted an application to survey the Great Pyramid in a nondestructive way to see if the theory can be confirmed. They are hopeful that the Supreme Council of Antiquities will grant permission for a survey. (Several methods could be used, including powerful microgravimetry, high-resolution infrared photography, or even sonar.) If so, sometime this year we may finally know how Khufu’s monumental tomb was built. One day, if it is indeed there, we might just be able to remove a few blocks from the exterior of the pyramid and walk up the mile-long ramp Hemienu left hidden within the Great Pyramid.

Bob Brier is a senior research fellow at the C. W. Post Campus of Long Island University and a contributing editor to ARCHAEOLOGY.

Fonte: Bob Brier – Archaeology: Volume 60 Number 3, May/June 2007

…I’m skeptical. Whatever the authors say about their statistics, this is rather like having a family burial plot with John and Mary Smith and their son John in it…

Leia o post de Jim Davila: The moral is: Don’t leave your inscribed ossuaries out in the courtyard. – February 24,2007

Mysterious bones of Jesus, Joseph and Mary – By Tim Butcher in Jerusalem (The Telegraph)

In a scene worthy of a Dan Brown novel, archaeologists a quarter of a century ago unearthed a burial chamber near Jerusalem.

Inside they found ossuaries, or boxes of bones, marked with the names of Jesus, Joseph and Mary.

Then one of the ossuaries went missing. The human remains inside were destroyed before any DNA testing could be carried out.

While Middle East academics doubt that the relics belong to the Holy Family, the issue is about to be exposed to a blaze of publicity with the publication next week of a book.

Entitled The Jesus Tomb and co-written by Simcha Jacobovici and Charles Pellegrino, the book promises the inside story of “what may very well be the greatest archaeological find of all time”.

[…]

The 10 ossuaries were taken initially to the Rockefeller Archaeological Museum outside the Old City of Jerusalem. Nine were catalogued and stored but the tenth was left outside in a courtyard.

That ossuary has subsequently gone missing.

[…]

I’m skeptical. Whatever the authors say about their statistics, this is rather like having a family burial plot with John and Mary Smith and their son John in it. Rather difficult to claim that they must be a particular Smith family.

 

Para quem não sabe: na Inglaterra, Smith é o sobrenome mais popular que existe. Equivale ao nosso Silva!