Onde se faz a maior parte da pesquisa atual sobre o Jesus Histórico?

Vale a pena ler a reflexão de Mark Goodacre no seu Mark Goodacre’s NT Blog sobre a atual situação da pesquisa sobre o Jesus Histórico. Leia

American Jesus scholarship coming of age?

Ou seja: A pesquisa norte-americana sobre o Jesus Histórico está chegando à maioridade?

 

American Jesus scholarship coming of age?

I am preparing a lecture at the moment on the contemporary scene in Historical Jesus scholarship (having taking a lecture on Schweitzer, then a lecture on Bultmann, Käsemann and the new quest, then a lecture on Geza Vermes and Ed Sanders) and as I re-read some materials on the Jesus Seminar, I am struck by this comment from the late Robert Funk, just a little over twenty years ago:

Perhaps most important of all, these developments have taken place predominantly, though not exclusively, in American scholarship. We need not promote chauvinism; we need only recognize that American biblical scholarship threatens to come of age, and that in itself is a startling new stage in our academic history. We may even be approaching the time when Europeans, if they know what they are about, will come to North America on sabbaticals to catch up, rather than the other way around. It is already clear that Europeans who do not read American scholarship are falling steadily behind. (Opening Remarks of Jesus Seminar Founder, Robert Funk, 21-24 March 1985)

It’s interesting to read that prophecy of not so long ago, and in many ways Funk has been proved right. In Historical Jesus studies at least, one’s mind naturally turns to Germans, and a handful of Brits prior to 1970. But the last thirty years or so have been quite different.

I’m wondering about geographical affiliations of Jesus questers in recent times. I suppose that a surprising number of so-called third questers have an association with the U.K., Geza Vermes, Anthony Harvey, Tom Wright. Ed Sanders had written Jesus and Judaism prior to coming to Oxford in 1984, but it was published in 1985. Then there’s Gerd Theissen in Germany. There are of course many prominent Americans too, Ben Meyer, John P. Meier, Paula Fredriksen, Dale Allison and more. Jesus Seminar folk, on the other hand, tend to be almost exclusively based in the US, and perhaps that is no coincidence in the light of Funk’s remarks above.

An aside on the same topic, I have struggled with attempts to categorize recent Jesus scholarship and I am inclined to agree with Dale Allison in “The Secularizing of the Historical Jesus”* that the now standard division into three quests is misleading and unhelpful. Nevertheless, I was struck today to see that Lane McGaughy consciously aligns the Jesus Seminar’s work with the work of the New Quest (The Search for the Historical Jesus: Why start with the sayings?). I was struck because I had thought that Tom Wright’s category “renewed new quest” in his inventory in Jesus and the Victory of God was a kind of marginalizing of the work of Crossan et al. I had not realized that it was in the Jesus Seminar’s own self-description. Notice, in particular, the following:

The agenda of the Jesus Seminar thus evolved from the New Quest and its attempt to reconstruct the teaching of the historical Jesus. In distinction from the so-called Third Quest which is attempting to locate Jesus within the religious and social world of first-century Judaism, the work of the Jesus Seminar may be seen as a renewal and extension of the New Quest (though some members of the Jesus Seminar may see their own work as part of the Third Quest). In chapter four of his recent book Honest to Jesus, Robert Funk refers to the work of the Jesus Seminar not as part of the Third Quest, but as the Renewed Quest for Jesus . . . . The work of the Jesus Seminar can thus be seen as the continuation of the New Quest for the historical Jesus.

I’m really surprised by the explicit acknowledgement that there are others who are engaged in a different enterprise, and the apparent distancing from the task of “attempting to locate jesus within hte religious and social world of first-century Judaism”. I thought that everyone took for granted that one of the very reasons for the collapse of the new quest was its negative evaluation of what it so shockingly called “late Judaism”.

* This was on-line on Dale Allison’s homepage for ages, but it seems that it is no longer there, nor are any of his other articles (and there’s a new pic.). Google locates a version here but I don’t know if it’s legitimate or not. Anyway, if you have a copy of Resurrecting Jesus (and if you haven’t, why not?), it’s the first essay in there, and a cracking read, as is the whole book.

Fonte: Mark Goodacre – NT Blog: January 22, 2006

Tomb raiders

Tomb raiders

Three years after Iraq’s ancient treasures were first stolen and smashed, the cradle of civilisation is still being looted. It’s a catastrophe, says former arts minister Mark Fisher.

The following correction was printed in the Guardian’s Corrections and clarifications column, Friday January 27 2006

In the article below, we said that Switzerland continued “to refuse to ratify the 1970 Unesco Convention on Illegal Exports of Works of Art”. That is completely incorrect. Switzerland in fact ratified the convention on October 3 2003. Earlier, on May 28 2003, Switzerland became the first country to introduce UN security council resolution 1483, dated May 22 2003, to facilitate the return of cultural assets to Iraq. This meant that the import, transit and export of Iraqi cultural property stolen in Iraq, or illicitly exported from Iraq since August 2 1990 was strictly prohibited.

 

‘Pillagers strip Iraq museum of its treasure,” the New York Times reported on April 13 2003 as Baghdad fell to coalition forces. The next day the Independent reported that “scores of Iraqi civilians broke into the museum … and made off with an estimated 170,000 ancient and priceless artefacts”.

The media joined archaeologists in condemning President Bush and the US. Eleanor Robson, a council member of the British School of Archaeology in Iraq, compared the US under President Bush to the Mongol hordes, and the destruction of the museum’s collection to that of the library of Alexandria in the 5th century. The president of the International Council on Monuments said that the US was guilty of committing a “crime against humanity”. Interpol set up a task force to track Iraq’s stolen cultural property, Unesco organised meetings of experts, and the US sent a multi-agency task force to investigate. It included specialists from the CIA, the FBI, the Diplomatic Security Service and US Immigration and Customs, and was led by Col Matthew Bogdanos, a former assistant district attorney from Manhattan.

Bogdanos announced an amnesty and slowly artefacts began to be returned, including one of the museum’s most beautiful and precious objects: the alabaster Warka Vase, carved in Uruk 5,000 years ago and now brought back in 14 pieces in a plastic rubbish bag. The pictures on the vase tell us much about life in ancient Mesopotamia, showing scenes of agriculture, religious and ritual offerings. Other pieces were recovered in raids, including the Bassetki statue, a copper statue base with the lower half of a man holding a standard or doorpost. It was hidden in a cesspool, submerged.

As these successes were reported, and estimates of the total losses revised down to around 15,000 artefacts, the media’s initial horror was replaced by a mood of relief, even of defiant complacency. David Aaronovitch wrote in this newspaper that “the only problem with [reports that the museum ‘was looted under the noses of the Yanks, or by the Yanks themselves’] is that it’s nonsense. It isn’t true. It’s made up. It’s bollocks.” The robbing of the Iraq National Museum slipped from the headlines. The caravan of outrage passed on. Gradually, however, the extent of the loss and damage to Iraq’s heritage across the country became clearer. Many of the Iraq National Museum’s major pieces, too big and heavy to move, had been smashed. At Mosul, 16 bronze Assyrian door panels from the city gates of Balawat (9th century BC) had been stolen, as had cuneiform tablets from Khorsabad and Nineveh. In Baghdad, the National Library and State Archives building was burned down and the national collections of contemporary Iraqi and European art, including works by Picasso and Miró, were looted.

Even more serious, perhaps, has been the damage to Iraq’s archaeology. In this cradle of civilisation, more than 10,000 sites of interest have been identified, of which only 1,500 have been researched. These sites are currently undefended from looters. Willy Deridder, the head of Interpol, has said that these sites – particularly those in the south, such as the 4,000-year-old ziggurat at Ur – are almost impossible to protect.

Babylon and Ur were requisitioned by the coalition and have had military camps constructed within their ancient sites. At Babylon the US forces flattened 300,000 sq metres and covered the area with compacted gravel in order to create parking lots for military vehicles next to a Greek theatre built for Alexander of Macedon. A dozen trenches, each up to 170m long, have been cut through archeological workings, destroying the evidence that they might have yielded.

A helipad was constructed in the heart of ancient Babylon. For this, ground had to be bulldozed and thousands of Hesco sandbags (made by the US-owned Handling Equipment Speciality Company) filled with earth to provide fortifications. The soil in these bags, dug up from the site, contains archaeological material now ripped out of its context, deracinated for all time. Worse, when more Hesco containers had to be filled, soil was brought in from other sites. The Hesco containers are biodegradable and are already beginning to collapse, leaving a stew of archaeological material that will eventually have to be sifted at vast expense if it is to be of value.

The military have now moved on, but while the helipad was in use the daily flights shook the foundations of Babylon’s ancient walls so severely that the wall of the Temple of Nabu and the roof of the 6th-century-BC Temple of Ninmah collapsed.

In the south, the remains of the ancient city of Ur, excavated by Leonard Woolley in the 1920s, is still a military camp, while the sites of neighbouring Sumerian city-states (Lagash, Uruk and Larsa) have been so badly damaged by looters that observers have described them as resembling devastated lunar landscapes, with craters 5m deep. These craters have been dug by Iraqis who, now that the sites are not guarded, are “farming” them at night for portable antiquities that can be sold.

The damage to Umma, in the desert north of Nasiriya, is particularly serious. One of the most celebrated of the Sumerian cities, it was not officially excavated until 1996. It has now been so comprehensively looted that what it can tell us of pre-Akkadian times may be irretrievably lost.

How important is this? For the Iraqis, the damage strikes at the heart of their culture and history. Although the Iraq National Museum was founded only in 1923, it was an institution around which all Iraqis, regardless of religion, could attempt to create some shared national identity. There is also considerable significance for the rest of the world: in these sites are buried the roots of western civilisation. A line of influence (philosophical, scientific, artistic, aesthetic) runs from Mesopotamia through Greece to Rome and on to us. This is the birthplace of historiography in that it was here, in Babylonia, in southern Iraq, that writing was invented 5,000 years ago, when cuneiform, etched on clay tablets, allowed the transmission of ideas, of achievements, of records.

In the fertile Mesopotamian lands, we can trace man’s achievements back for at least 10,000 years, to early farming communities of Nemrik, to the al’Ubaid civilisation (7,000 years ago) and to the rule of the Sumerian king, Gilgamesh, which inspired The Epic of Gilgamesh (circa 2000 BC), one of the greatest works of literature, written in cuneiform on 11 tablets and in which we have the earliest accounts of the great flood.

It is only in the past 150 years that we have begun to retrieve this history and the record of the astounding achievements of the Sumerian and Akkadian empires that succeeded it. We have in the Louvre, in the Philadelphia museum, the Ashmolean and the British Museum glimpses of the sophistication of Ur with its Royal Tombs; of the wonders of Sardon’s palaces at Khorsabad, with their statues of winged bulls; of the Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal, shown in reliefs from the North Palace at Nineveh.

But these treasures, though mighty, are modest when compared with those in the Iraq National Museum in Baghdad: the Lion Hunt stela from Uruk; the now-eyeless copper head of the Great King Naram-Sin; the stained ivory sculpture known as the Mona Lisa of Nimrud. This has once again survived, as it did in 612 BC when Nimrud was attacked and the head was thrown down a well where it lay submerged for 2,500 years. Along with the Nimrud gold from the tombs of the Assyrian Queens, the head was stored in the “safety” of the vaults of the Central Bank in Baghdad, along with the Nimrud gold from the tombs of the Assyrian Queens. There it avoided being looted, but both gold and head were severely damaged by an apocalyptic flood of 500,000 tons of water that may have been deliberately engineered to prevent Saddam Hussein and his sons from making off with them.

In 2003, in the months when a coalition invasion seemed likely, there was ample time in which to take steps to protect Iraq’s treasures and in which the world’s archeological community could, and did, make representations to the governments in Washington and London. Thousands of objects were removed to places of safety, but the pleas to Bush and Blair were ignored. When Baghdad fell in March 2003, the Iraq National Museum remained unguarded for days and the country’s archeological sites for months.

What can be learned from these unhappy events? What is being done? Unesco has established an International Committee on which 30 countries are represented. The UK’s delegate is Dr John Curtis, keeper of the British Museum’s Ancient Near East Department. Last November the committee agreed a resolution that there should be an independent assessment made of the damage to Babylon. However, the US is reluctant to cooperate unless the assessment is under American control and employs American consultants.

On the security of archeological sites, most are agreed that, if the “farming” of sites is to end, the guards should be restored and their salaries raised. Ideally, there should be aerial surveillance over the most important sites, but here again US cooperation is uncertain.

Action needs to be taken to stop the illegal export of artefacts stolen from museums and sites. There is general agreement with the assessment of the director of the Iraq Museum, Donny George, that Iran and Turkey are “not assisting” in the control of this black market and that many of the exported artefacts are passing through Switzerland, which has the fourth largest art market in the world but continues to refuse to ratify the 1970 Unesco Convention on Illegal Exports of Works of Art.

In the medium term, responsibility for re-establishing Iraq’s museums and sites should be assumed by the interim Iraqi government. This body has recently announced a reconstructing of its cultural ministry into four sections (museums, excavations, conservation, and interpretation and learning). Each section will report to a minister and the role of Dr George, who has done so much to restore order in the past 18 months, will be downgraded. He may retire.

Our worst fears, that “10,000 years of human history has been erased” may not have come to pass, but a similar catastrophe in the future may not be averted unless the US and the UK governments recognise the damage that the war has caused and accept some responsibility for it.

They might profit from reading The Epic of Gilgamesh. Like all great poems, it tells us about ourselves. It is about grief and the fear of death, about man’s quest for wisdom and immortality. Its hero doesn’t understand the difference between strength and arrogance. By attacking a monster, he brings down disaster on himself.

Fonte: The Guardian – Thu 19 Jan 2006

Intelligent design, criacionismo e evolucionismo

Será que todo mundo sabe o que é intelligent design, que pode ser traduzido por design inteligente ou planejamento inteligente?

E qual sua relação com o evolucionismo? E com o criacionismo? E com a sociedade norte-americana? E com o Vaticano? E com a administração Bush?

E por que este tema está sendo tão debatido ultimamente? E esta polêmica já chegou ao Brasil? Ou vai chegar?

Abaixo, alguns links para os interessados no assunto…

Breakthrough of the year: Evolution in Action
Discovery Institute
Discovery Institute
Escolas do Rio vão ensinar criacionismo
EUA abrem maior mostra sobre Darwin
Evolução é o “achado do ano”, diz revista
Jornal do Vaticano diz que design inteligente não é científico
Mais que polêmico, ensinar criacionismo é “crime”, diz físico Marcelo Gleiser
Teorias científicas vão aos tribunais
The Center for Science and Culture

Traduttore, traditore?

Tradurre in generale è un lavoraccio…

Veja este exemplo de uma nova tradução da Bíblia em alemão, noticiado por Die Tageszeitung. O que você pensa disto?

Recomendo a leitura do artigo de José Luiz GONZAGA DO PRADO, Traduzir: interpretar ou re-criar? Estudos Bíblicos, Petrópolis, n. 32, 1991, p. 89-92. José Luiz discute alguns problemas corriqueiros das traduções bíblicas, mas que nos afetam diariamente, como: o erudito e o popular; linguagem técnica x linguagem literária; ‘linguagem bíblica’ e mudança cultural; até onde recriar?

Proveitosa será também a leitura das recensões de Ney Brasil PEREIRA, onde são avaliadas duas traduções da Bíblia muito usadas nos meios católicos brasileiros: Bíblia de Jerusalém. Nova edição, revista e ampliada. São Paulo: Paulus, 2002. In: Estudos Bíblicos, Petrópolis, n. 76, 2002, p. 79-81; Bíblia Sagrada. 2. ed. Tradução da CNBB, com introduções e notas. São Paulo/Petrópolis/Aparecida: Ave Maria / Vozes / Salesiana / Paulus / Santuário / Paulinas / Loyola, 2002. In: Estudos Bíblicos, Petrópolis, n. 77, 2003, p. 67-75.

Excelente livro sobre os problemas de tradução da Bíblia: the theory, history, and practice of Bible translation in a collection of 21 essays by leading scholars and practitioners…

Leia: SCORGIE, G. G.; STRAUSS, M. L.; VOTH, S. M. (eds.), The Challenge of Bible Translation. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2003, 432 p.

 

Justiça manda apreender livro anti-semita em São Paulo

Por ordem da Justiça, 1.680 exemplares do livro “Os Protocolos dos Sábios do Sião” foram apreendidos na segunda-feira (17) na sede da editora Centauro, na zona norte de São Paulo. O livro é considerado ofensivo pela comunidade judaica por relatar um suposto plano de dominação do mundo feito por judeus (…) “Os Protocolos dos Sábios do Sião” foi publicado pela primeira vez no início do século 20, na Rússia czarista. O livro – que é apócrifo – descreve um suposto plano judeu de dominação do mundo. Segundo a enciclopédia livre Wikipedia, o texto é considerado fraudulento por vários historiadores da Europa e dos Estados Unidos. De acordo com o site, há evidências de que ele tenha sido produzido por autoridades russas. Leia Mais.

The Protocols of the (Learned) Elders of Zion (Russian: “Протоколы Сионских мудрецов” or “Сионские Протоколы”) is a text frequently quoted and reprinted by anti-Semites, purporting to describe a plan to achieve Jewish global domination. It has been repeatedly exposed as a hoax by numerous independent investigations during the last hundred years. The Encyclopædia Britannica describes the Protocols as a “fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century”. Mainstream historians in the United States of America and Europe have long agreed that the text is fraudulent; this has also been stated in a number of court cases worldwide, e.g., as early as the 1930s in Bern, Switzerland. In 1993, a district court in Moscow, Russia, formally ruled that the Protocols were faked in dismissing a libel suit by the ultra-nationalist Pamyat organization, which had been criticized for using them in their anti-Semitic publications (…) It was first published abridged in series from August 28 to September 7 (O.S.), 1903 in St. Petersburg daily newspaper Знамя (Znamya, The Banner) by Pavel Krushevan who four months earlier initiated the Kishinev pogrom. There is evidence that the text was written by an operative of the Imperial Russian Okhranka Matvei Golovinski and was based on an early work by Maurice Joly linking Napoleon III to Machiavelli. For Tsar Nicholas II, who was fearful of modernization and protective of his monarchy, it would have been convenient to present the growing revolutionary movement as part of a powerful world conspiracy and blame the Jews for Russia’s problems. Leia Mais.

It is now 100 years since the emergence of the infamous forgery, “The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion,” the document which generated massive anti-Semitism all over the world. The story of the Protocols is well known. Developed by the Tsar’s secret police in 1905, it claimed to be the real discussions of the Jewish leaders’ conspiracy to rule the world. It is a classic in paranoid, racist literature. Taken by the gullible as the confidential minutes of a Jewish conclave convened in the last years of the 19th century, it has been heralded by anti-Semites as proof that Jews are plotting to take over the world. The document had a life of its own after World War I. It spread through Russia during the turmoil of the Communist revolution and its aftermath, playing a role in the murder of tens of thousands of Jews. It was picked up by auto magnate Henry Ford in the United States. “The Dearborn Independent,” owned by Ford, published an American version of the Protocols between May and September of 1920 in a series called “The International Jew: the World’s Foremost Problem.” The articles were later republished in book form with half a million copies in circulation. This helped to spread pernicious anti-Semitism in this country in the 1920s. Adolf Hitler cited the document as proof…

A gramática de hebraico do Gesenius está online

A clássica Gramática de Hebraico do Gesenius está, hoje, mais acessível do que nunca para consulta, pois pode ser acessada gratuitamente online. Confira aqui ou aqui.

Sem nos esquecermos, é claro, da edição impressa: GESENIUS, W.; KAUTZSCH, E. (ed.) Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. New York: Dover Publications, 2006, 598 p. – ISBN 9780486443447.

 

Quem foi Gesenius?

Heinrich Friedrich Wilhelm Gesenius (February 3, 1786 – October 23, 1842), was a German orientalist and Biblical critic. He was born at Nordhausen, Thuringia. In 1803 he became a student of philosophy and theology at the University of Helmstädt, where Heinrich Henke was his most influential teacher; but the latter part of his university course was taken at the Göttingen, where J. G. Eichhorn and T.C. Tychsen were then at the height of their popularity. In 1806, shortly after graduation, he became Repetent and Privatdozent at Göttingen; and, as he was later proud to say, had August Neander for his first pupil in Hebrew language. In 1810 he became professor extraordinarius in theology, and in 1811 ordinarius, at the University of Halle, where, in spite of many offers of high preferment elsewhere, he spent the rest of his life.

He taught for over thirty years, the only interruptions being that of 1813-1814 (occasioned by the War of Liberation, during which the university was closed) and those occasioned by two prolonged literary tours, first in 1820 to Paris, London and Oxford with his colleague Johann Karl Thilo (1794-1853) for the examination of rare oriental manuscripts, and in 1835 to England and the Netherlands in connection with his Phoenician studies. He became the most popular teacher of Hebrew and of Old Testament introduction and exegesis in Germany; during his later years his lectures were attended by nearly five hundred students. Among his pupils the most eminent were Peter von Bohlen, A.G. Hoffmann, Hermann Hupfeld, Emil Rödiger, J.F. Tuch, Wilhelm Vatke and Theodor Benfey.

In 1827, after declining an invitation to take Eichhorn’s place at Göttingen, Gesenius was made a Consistorialrath; but, apart from the violent attacks to which he, along with his friend and colleague
Julius Wegscheider, was in 1830 subjected by E.W. Hengstenberg and his party in the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, on account of his rationalism, his life was uneventful. He died at Halle.

Gesenius takes much of the credit for having freed Semitic philology from the trammels of Theological and religious prepossession, and for inaugurating the strictly scientific (and comparative) method which has since been so fruitful. As an exegete he exercised a powerful influence on theological investigation.

 

A Gramática

Of his many works, the earliest, published in 1810, entitled Versuch über die maltesische Sprache, was a successful refutation of the current opinion that the modern Maltese was of Punic origin. In the same year appeared the first volume of the Hebräisches u. Chaldäisches Handwörterbuch, completed in 1812. Revised editions of this appear periodically in Germany. The publication of a new English edition was started in 1892 under the editorship of Professors C.A. Briggs, S.R. Driver and F. Brown. The Hebräische Grammatik, published in 1813 (28th edition by E. Kautzsch; English translation by A.E. Cowley, 1910; 29th edition [incomplete] by G. Bergsträsser, 1918-29), was followed in 1815 by the Geschichte der hebräischen Sprache (now very rare), and in 1817 by the Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der hebräischen Sprache.

Encyclopaedia Gentium Boni – Recursos para o estudo da Bíblia

Encyclopaedia Gentium Boni: numerosos recursos para o estudo da Bíblia, com forte ênfase na língua hebraica. Tanto para consulta online, quanto para download. Por Didier Fontaine. Em francês.

Uma pequena amostra dos recursos hebraicos: dictionnaires, grammaires complètes, méthodes d’initiation, syntaxe, textes analysés, textes de référence, conjugaisons, ouvrages indispensables, flashcards, logiciels gratuits… Mas há mais! Veja alguns recursos bíblicos: textes originaux, manuscrits, critique textuelle, ressources bibliographiques, encyclopédies et dictionnaires, atlas bibliques…

Visite a Eisenbrauns

A Eisenbrauns, de Indiana, USA, é uma respeitada casa com publicações acadêmicas de excelente qualidade sobre o Antigo Oriente Médio, estudos bíblicos, arqueologia e assiriologia.

 

Established in 1975 by Jim and Merna Eisenbraun primarily as a means for students at the University of Michigan to purchase books in Ancient Near East studies affordably, Eisenbrauns grew over the years to include a publishing program, a prepress house, and book distribution and sales. In 2017, Eisenbrauns secured the future of its highly regarded publications in Ancient Near East studies, biblical studies, biblical archaeology, Assyriology, linguistics, and related fields by becoming an imprint of Penn State University Press, where the books and journals will complement PSU Press’s prestigious lists in religious studies and Jewish studies.

A university press is a natural home for Eisenbrauns, even if such a move is rare in the broader industry. Jim and his publishing house have long and deep relationships in the university press world. A publisher of premier peer-reviewed scholarship, Eisenbrauns handles prepress and other specialized production work for a number of university press journals and books, and the company’s service-oriented philosophy aligns well with the mission underlying every university press operation.