Mudança de paradigma na pesquisa do profetismo bíblico

Muitos têm observado que desde o final dos anos 80 do século XX o estudo da profecia bíblica e dos livros proféticos vem passando por uma mudança de paradigma. De fato, os estudos proféticos encontram-se há bastante tempo em um período de transição. Eles não são os mesmos de algumas décadas atrás. Uma rápida vistoria na variedade atual de abordagens metodológicas nos estudos bíblicos é suficiente para demonstrar que os estudos histórico-críticos tradicionais deram lugar a maneiras menos históricas e não-históricas de ver os livros proféticos, como abordagens literárias e de gênero ou estudos pós-coloniais e críticas ideológicas. No entanto, os estudos histórico-críticos não perderam sua relevância nos estudos de profecia. O foco é que mudou, se afastando da reconstrução da vida e das obras dos profetas históricos e se concentrando nos processos literários que resultaram nos livros proféticos bíblicos e em questões sociorreligiosas relacionadas à profecia e à sociedade. Os estudos diacrônicos dos livros proféticos não visam mais ‘o verso intocado e não contaminado do autor, poeta e profeta’. Os livros proféticos são hoje lidos no contexto do pós-exílio, ou seja, em sua forma literária mais recente, embora não necessariamente seja esta a forma final.

Além disso, os estudos históricos não se limitam mais ao texto bíblico, graças à crescente atenção aos documentos sobre a profecia do Antigo Oriente Médio, que permite a apreciação da profecia israelita como mais um exemplo de um fenômeno cultural e sociorreligioso mais amplo de transmissão de palavras supostamente divinas a destinatários humanos. Nenhum estudo sério da profecia como fenômeno histórico pode prescindir de fontes extrabíblicas, que hoje estão disponíveis para todo pesquisador.

Novidades metodológicas recentes, bem como o extenso corpus de material recuperado, causaram reorientações fundamentais no estudo da profecia. Houve um tempo em que o estudo dos livros proféticos se concentrava essencialmente na reconstrução da mensagem de cada profeta bíblico como uma personalidade histórica e o autor original do livro profético atribuído a ele, cuja obra foi posteriormente complementada por redatores posteriores. Estudos clássicos desse tipo – como os de Bernhard Duhm sobre os profetas de Israel – são o pré-requisito absoluto do estudo crítico da profecia bíblica, e os livros proféticos ainda são bastante abordados a partir dos profetas aos quais os textos são tradicionalmente atribuídos. No entanto, um breve olhar em introduções recentes à Bíblia Hebraica ou à literatura profética revela que os livros proféticos são introduzidos principalmente como livros, enquanto os profetas a quem são atribuídos tendem a se tornar indistintos. Isso reflete a convicção acadêmica de que a principal missão dos estudos proféticos não pode mais ser estabelecer a ipsissima verba dos antigos profetas, uma vez que eles só podem ser visualizados através das fontes escritas, sejam bíblicas ou não-bíblicas – e nem sequer identificar o material mais antigo incluído nos textos proféticos, como se este fosse mais interessante e valioso em virtude de sua alegada “originalidade”. O modelo “o autor em seu contexto” está sendo cada vez mais substituído por outros modelos, mais ou menos interessados ​​em questões históricas, seja qual for o sentido de “história”.

 

It has been noted since late 1980’s at the latest that the study of biblical prophecy and prophetic books is going through a paradigm switch. Indeed, prophetic studies have for quite a while found themselves in a period of transition; they are not the same as they used to be a couple of decades ago. A quick look at the spectrum of today’s variety of methodological approaches in biblical studies is enough to demonstrate that traditional historical‐critical studies have given way to less historical and non‐historical ways of viewing the prophetic books, such as literary and gender approaches or postcolonial studies and ideological criticism. However, as many contributions published in the present volume (including an article by H ANS B ARSTAD to which this article originally responded) and other recent collections of essays well demonstrate, even historical‐critical studies have by no means lost their relevance in studies of prophecy; nevertheless, it is observable that their focus has turned away from the reconstruction of the life and deeds of historical prophets and directed towards literary processes that resulted in the biblical prophetic books and socioreligious issues related to prophecy and society. The diachronic studies in the prophetic books no longer aim at ‘the pristine and uncontaminated verse of the author, poet and prophet’ ; they would rather give to each layer and gloss its own meaning and significance. Even synchronic studies that refrain from reconstructing the literary genesis of the prophetic books are often historically oriented, reading the books against the background of the Second Temple period, that is, the date of the prophetic books in their advanced (but not necessarily ‘final’) literary form.

In addition, historical studies are no longer restricted to the biblical text itself, thanks to the increasing attention to the documentation of ancient Near Eastern prophecy, which enables the appreciation of the Hebrew prophecy as another specimen of a wider cultural and socio‐religious phenomenon of transmitting allegedly divine words to human recipients. No serious study of prophecy as a historical phenomenon can do without extrabiblical sources, which today are available to every researcher.

Recent methodological innovations as well as the extended corpus of source material have caused fundamental reorientations in the study of prophecy. There was a time when the study of the prophetic books was essentially focused on the reconstruction of the message of each biblical prophet as a historical personality and the original author of the prophetic book ascribed to him, whose work had subsequently been supplemented by later hands. Classical studies of this kind—such as BERNHARD DUHM ’s on Israel’s prophets —are the absolute prerequisite of the critical study of biblical prophecy, and the prophetic books are still quite commonly approached through the prophets to whom the texts are traditionally ascribed. However, a brief look at recent introductions to the Hebrew Bible or to the prophetic literature reveals that the prophetic books are introduced primarily as books, whereas the prophets to whom they are attributed tend to become indistinct. This reflects the scholarly conviction that the primary mission of prophetic studies can no longer be to establish the ipsissima verba of ancient prophets, since they can hardly be distracted from any written sources, whether biblical or nonbiblical —it is not even to identify the earliest material included in the prophetic texts, as if it were more interesting and valuable by virtue of its alleged ‘originality’. The ‘author‐in time’ model is increasingly being replaced by other models, more or less interested in historical issues—whatever is meant with ‘history.’

What is the aim of prophetic studies, then? There is certainly more than one answer to this question. Since the reliance on objective and value‐free questions is gone, the answer depends on each researcher’s agenda; the concerns of a theologian, postcolonialist, feminist, or, say, discourse analyst will result in sets of questions that may be equally relevant but different from those implied by the title of this paper which focuses on the historical dilemma of prophetic studies. Biblical studies have many aims, one of them still being a historical one.

Trecho de NISSINEN, M. The Historical Dilemma of Biblical Prophetic Studies. In: BARSTAD, M. H. ; KRATZ, R. G. (eds.) Prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009, p. 103-105.BARSTAD, M. H. ; KRATZ, R. G. (eds.) Prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2009

 

Sobre o livro

This volume contains the proceedings of a Symposium “Prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah”, arranged by the Edinburgh Prophecy Network in the School of Divinity at the University of Edinburgh, 11-12 May 2007. Prophetic studies are undergoing radical changes at the moment, following the breakdown of a methodological consensus in humanities and biblical studies. One of the challenges today concerns the question how to deal with history in a “post-modern” age. The French Annales School and narrative theory have contributed toward changing the intellectual climate of biblical studies dramatically. Whereas the “historical Jeremiah” was formerly believed to be hidden under countless additions and interpretations, and changed beyond recognition, it was still assumed that it would be possible to recover the “real” prophet with the tools of historical critical methods. However, according to a majority of scholars today, the recovery of the historical Jeremiah is no longer possible. For this reason, we have to seek new and multimethodological approaches to the study of prophecy, including diachronic and synchronic methods. The Meeting in Edinburgh in 2007 gathered specialists in prophetic studies from Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, United Kingdom and the USA, focusing on different aspects of the prophet Jeremiah. Prophetic texts from the whole Hebrew Bible and ancient Near Eastern prophecy are taken into consideration.

Ezequiel na virada do século

Na primeira metade do século XX, se comparado com Isaías e Jeremias, o livro do profeta Ezequiel recebeu pouca atenção dos pesquisadores. Isto mudou radicalmente com a publicação do comentário, em dois volumes e em alemão, do suíço Walther Zimmerli (1907-1983), em 1969, e sua tradução para o inglês em 1979 e 1983. Com sua leitura histórico-crítica rigorosa, Zimmerli iniciou uma nova era para os estudos do livro de Ezequiel. Livro que ele atribuiu quase todo a seguidores do profeta. Também em 1983 aparece o primeiro volume do comentário de Moshe Greenberg (1928-2010) que, em contraste com Zimmerli, apresenta o livro como proveniente do próprio profeta. Desde a publicação destes dois comentários, o nosso conhecimento sobre o exílio babilônico, época de Ezequiel, melhorou consideravelmente com os estudos arqueológicos, sociológicos e antropológicos feitos nos últimos anos. E o livro de Ezequiel passou a chamar mais a atenção dos pesquisadores.

 

The twentieth century was most eventful for the scholarly study of the book of Ezekiel (…) It is no wonder, then, that critical scholarship on the book through the first half of the 1900s seemed rather lackluster when compared with the other major biblical prophets. Indeed, the book of Ezekiel, perhaps because of the exilic setting of the work, or the bizarre behavior recounted in the text, or perhaps the conflicted priestly versus prophetic persona of Ezekiel himself, received considerably less scholarly attention than most of the prophet’s biblical predecessors (…) This trend changed dramatically with the appearance of Zimmerli’s two-volume commentary, published in German in the 1960s, and subsequently in English in 1979 and 1983. Zimmerli’ s mastery of form, text and redaction criticism, along with his traditio-historical analysis, made his commentary the new starting point for serious Ezekiel scholars. Even so, Zimmerli also ultimately deemed the bulk of the prophetic text to be secondary, written by the followers of the prophet (…) Also appearing in 1983 was the first volume of Greenberg’s Anchor Bible commentary on Ezekiel. In Ezekiel 1–20, Greenberg, in contrast to Zimmerli, illustrates his view that the general shape of the book is the result of representation of the prophet’s unique vision in its received form. With his emphasis on biblical and early Jewish commentators, Greenberg’s holistic method of textual and structural interpretation helped elucidate the sixth-century matrix of the prophet himself (…) Since the publication of Zimmerli’s and Greenberg’s commentaries, significant strides have been made in the study of the historical circumstances surrounding the Israelite Exile. Archaeological, sociological and anthropological analyses have illuminated what had been a dark age in biblical history, and have helped reveal the vivid theological struggles among both the local and Diaspora populations that have come to characterize the exilic period. As a result, the book of Ezekiel has gained both renewed interest and respect. As a prophet of the Exile, Ezekiel has come to be viewed as an important and liminal figure in the evolution of Israelite thought and theology.

Trecho de LEVITT KOHN, R. Ezekiel at the Turn of the Century. In: HAUSER, A. J. (ed.) Recent Research on the Major Prophets. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2008, p. 260-261.

 

Autores citados no texto

ZIMMERLI, W. Ezekiel. I. A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, Chapters 1–24. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979 (original alemão: 1969).

ZIMMERLI, W. Ezekiel. II. A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, Chapters 25–48. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983 (original alemão: 1969).

GREENBERG, M. Ezekiel 1-20. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983.

GREENBERG, M. Ezekiel 21-37. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1997.

COOK, S. L. Ezekiel 38-48. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018.

As enquetes bíblicas estão de volta

Enquetes Bíblicas – Biblical Polls

GráficosEntre 2003 e 2011 publiquei na Ayrton’s Biblical Page várias enquetes bíblicas. Dezenas. Assuntos que estavam sendo debatidos no meio acadêmico, nos biblioblogs, na mídia, nas iniciativas das comunidades eclesiais, nas aulas com os estudantes de Teologia.

Aquelas enquetes foram arquivadas e os scripts php ficaram desatualizados, impossibilitando sua continuidade.

Agora, com recursos mais sofisticados do WordPress, retomei a ideia.

Enquetes começam a ser, novamente, publicadas. No blog Observatório Bíblico.

O endereço é: https://airtonjo.com/blog1/enquetes-biblicas

Há links para a página de enquetes também no menu principal do Observatório Bíblico e no Menu 2, no rodapé da Ayrton’s Biblical Page.

Vote.

Representando deuses e homens no Antigo Oriente Médio e na Bíblia

RÖMER, T. ; GONZALEZ, H. ; MARTI, L. (eds.) Représenter dieux et hommes dans le Proche-Orient ancien et dans la Bible. Actes du colloque organisé par le Collège de France, Paris, les 5 et 6 mai 2015. Leuven: Peeters, 2019, 398 p. – ISBN 9789042939738

RÖMER, T. ; GONZALEZ, H. ; MARTI, L. (eds.) Représenter dieux et hommes dans le Proche-Orient ancien et dans la Bible. Actes du colloque organisé par le Collège de France, Paris, les 5 et 6 mai 2015. Leuven: Peeters, 2019La question des images est centrale pour l’intelligence des religions anciennes et modernes. Cette question est également fondamentale pour comprendre la manière dont un groupe ou une société représente son rapport au monde et la place des humains dans ce monde. Le colloque « Représenter dieux et hommes dans le Proche-Orient ancien et dans la Bible », qui s’est tenu les 5 et 6 mai 2015 au Collège de France, avait pour but d’apporter des éclairages sur ce sujet, en abordant différentes questions qui s’y rapportent:

Quelle est la fonction des représentations du divin et aussi des hommes? Quelles sont les différentes manières de rendre visibles des dieux et quelles sont les fonctions particulières de ces représentations? Ces représentations permettent-elles de mieux comprendre les cultes officiels et les cultes privés? Quel est le rôle des images dans le culte royal? Est-ce le roi ou tous les humains qui sont « l’image » des dieux?

Le judaïsme et le christianisme se basent sur le Décalogue qui interdit la fabrication des images, une idée qui est d’ailleurs aussi reprise dans l’islam. Mais comment comprendre cet interdit? S’agit-il d’un refus de toutes sortes d’images ou « seulement » de la représentation du divin? Et quelle est la raison d’être d’un tel interdit? Pourquoi considère-t-on illégitime de représenter des dieux et des hommes, alors que cette pratique était courante dans le Proche-Orient ancien? En même temps, l’aniconisme voire l’iconoclasme ne semble nullement être réservé aux systèmes religieux dits monothéistes. Ces phénomènes s’observent bien avant l’époque des auteurs bibliques. Quelles sont alors les raisons de ces résistances face aux images? Et peut-on en vraiment concevoir une société sans représentations aucunes? Comment les représentations des dieux et des hommes changent-elles en l’absence d’image cultuelle?

 

A questão das imagens é central para a compreensão das religiões antigas e modernas. Esta questão também é fundamental para entender como um grupo ou uma sociedade representa sua relação com o mundo e o lugar dos humanos neste mundo. O simpósio “Representando deuses e homens no Antigo Oriente Médio e na Bíblia”, realizado em 5 e 6 de maio de 2015 no Collège de France, teve como objetivo esclarecer esse assunto, abordando diferentes questões entrelaçadas:

Qual é a função das representações da divindade e também dos humanos? Quais são as diferentes maneiras de tornar os deuses visíveis e quais são as funções específicas Estátuas de deuses sendo transportadas - Austen Henry Layard, The Monuments of Ninevehdessas representações? Essas representações fornecem uma melhor compreensão dos cultos oficiais e também dos cultos privados? Qual é o papel das imagens no culto real? É o rei ou todos os humanos que são “a imagem” dos deuses?

O judaísmo e o cristianismo têm como referência o Decálogo, que proíbe a fabricação de imagens, uma ideia que também existe no Islã. Mas como entender essa proibição? É uma recusa de todos os tipos de imagens ou “apenas” de representações do divino? E qual é o motivo dessa proibição? Por que é considerado ilegítimo representar deuses e homens quando essa prática era comum no Antigo Oriente Médio? Ao mesmo tempo, aniconismo e até iconoclastia não parecem exclusivos de sistemas religiosos monoteístas. Esses fenômenos podem ser observados bem antes da época dos autores bíblicos. Quais são as razões dessa resistência às imagens? E podemos realmente conceber uma sociedade sem representações? Como as representações de deuses e homens mudam na ausência de uma imagem de culto?

O livro está disponível para download gratuito aqui.

Sobre o simpósio, confira aqui.

Observações sobre o aniconismo no antigo Israel

A questão:

Quando foi que surgiu a proibição de imagens da divindade no antigo Israel?

A proibição do uso de imagens de outros deuses é facilmente compreendida.

Mas por que proibir representações de Iahweh?

Robert P. Carroll, em artigo publicado em 1977, The aniconic God and the cult of images, Studia Theologica – Nordic Journal of Theology, 31:1, p. 51-64 lista 6 soluções apresentadas, até aquele momento, pelos pesquisadores:

1. Porque Iahweh é invisível e não pode ser representado
2. Porque Israel precisa ser diferente das outras nações ao seu redor que usam imagens no culto
3. Para impedir a manipulação mágica de Iahweh
4. Como uma reação contra os cultos teriomórficos do Egito
5. Porque Iahweh se manifesta como uma presença que estabelece uma relação com o povo e isto é abstrato demais para ser representado como imagem
6. Porque a representação mais próxima de Iahweh é a do ser humano e não a de uma imagem

1. Because the deity is invisible he cannot be represented in concrete or plastic forms
2. Image worship is a mark of differentiation between Israel and the nations
3. Against attempts to manipulate the deity, as prohibitions against magical practices
4. An extreme form of reaction to the theriomorphic cults of Egypt
5. God is experienced as a presence but not a presence that can be tangibly reproduced
6. The Israelite view of god as an Ί am’ or an Ί will be’ (Ex. 3:14) linked man and god far more closely than any view of god bound up with images

 

De maneira semelhante, SCHMIDT, B. B. The Aniconic Tradition: On Reading Images and Viewing Texts. In: EDELMAN, D. V. (ed.) The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996, p. 75-105, agrupa as teorias sob quatro títulos:

1. Iahweh, como um Deus oculto e transcendente, não pode estar contido em uma imagem e não pode ser manipulado no culto
2. Iahweh é o Deus de um povo nômade chamado Israel em oposicão aos deuses dos cananeus urbanizados
3. O culto sem imagens representa o avanço racional do antigo Israel sobre a cosmovisão dos outros povos que utilizam imagens em seus cultos
4. Devido à ideologia antimonárquica de Israel, Iahweh não deve ser representado como uma figura real, comumente usada para simbolizar divindades no Antigo Oriente Médio

1.YHWH, as a hidden and transcendent god, cannot be contained in an image and cannot be manipulated in the cult
2. He is the god of a nomadic people called Israel over against the gods of the urbanized Canaanites
3. The imageless cult represents Israel’s rational advance over the world view symbolized by the foreign cults that utilize images
4. Owing to Israel’s antimonarchical ideology, YHWH is not to be represented as the typical royal figure of ancient Near Eastern divine symbolism

 

De lá para cá, o cenário mudou.

O número de teorias para explicar o aniconismo diminuiu, a ideia da manipulação mágica de Iahweh esfriou, as práticas religiosas israelitas passaram a ser cada vez mais vistas em conexão com o Antigo Oriente Médio, e não em oposição a ele, e localizar o aniconismo nas origens de Israel saiu de moda. O debate atual se concentra muito mais em possíveis fatores sociais e políticos que levaram a um fortalecimento do pensamento anicônico em Israel.

Daí a categorização que pode ser encontrada entre alguns estudiosos alemães, que observam uma divisão tríplice:

1. Uma posição clássica, que sustenta que as imagens cultuais eram proibidas desde os primórdios de Israel
2. Uma posição evolutiva, segundo a qual houve uma rejeição gradual de imagens no contexto do culto
3. Uma posição revolucionária, que defende ter havido uma mudança repentina de atitudes em relação à iconografia que resultou na destruição de imagens cultuais, bem como em leis que proíbem sua fabricação e uso

Embora muitos estudiosos possam considerar a ideia de um culto anicônico de Iahweh desde tempos antigos, em conjunto com as masseboth (estelas) em locais sagrados fora do Templo, aventou-se também a possibilidade da existência de algum tipo de representação ou imagem de Iahweh no Primeiro Templo, antes do exílio babilônico.

A ideia de um declínio gradual de representações divinas parece consistente com as leis que proíbem imagens de Iahweh e de outras divindades. Tais leis são de épocas diferentes e pertencem a variadas camadas da tradição bíblica. O pensamento anicônico encontra-se, por exemplo, no Código da Aliança (Ex 20,23), no Decálogo (Ex 20,4; Dt 5,8), na Lei de santidade (Lv 17-26), em Dt 4,15-19; 27,15 e em Ex 34,17.

Embora não exista consenso entre os especialistas, acredita-se que o Deuteronômio e a Obra Histórica Deuteronomista tenham surgido ou no final da monarquia, talvez na época de Josias, ou durante o exílio babilônico. Mas existe um consenso de que o Deuteronômio e a teologia deuteronomista desempenharam um papel fundamental na promoção do veto às imagens. A insistência dos teólogos deuteronomistas em colocar a Torá ou a palavra de Iahweh acima de qualquer representação divina apoia essa perspectiva. Além do que, é conhecida a grande oposição aos ídolos na época do exílio babilônico, como aparece, por exemplo, no Dêutero-Isaías (Is 40-55) e na tradição sacerdotal (P) do Pentateuco.

O pensamento anicônico está presente também na literatura profética, mas não há consenso entre os estudiosos sobre quais textos devam ser incluídos neste debate. Além do óbvio Dêutero-Isaías, faz-se menção frequente ao livro de Oseias, mas também são citados os livros de Jeremias e Ezequiel. Do mesmo modo não se chega a uma definição clara sobre a relação entre a retórica anicônica nos livros proféticos e as leis do Pentateuco.

 

Referências

CARROLL, R. P. The aniconic God and the cult of images, Studia Theologica – Nordic Journal of Theology, 31:1, p. 51-64, 1977.

EDELMAN, D. V. (ed.) The Triumph of Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1996.

KANG, S. I. In search of the origins of Israelite aniconism. Acta theol., Bloemfontein, v. 38, n. 1, p. 84-98, 2018.

LEWIS, T. J. Divine Images and Aniconism in Ancient Israel, Journal of the American Oriental Society 118, p. 36–53, 1998.

MIDDLEMAS, J. The Divine Image: Prophetic Aniconic Rhetoric and Its Contribution to the Aniconism Debate. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2015.

Sobre João 1,1-2

Por que Jo 1,1c está invertido em grego? Veja no curso de grego como Jo 1,1 foi analisado.

καὶ Θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος

Deve ser traduzido por:

E Deus era o Verbo

ou

E o Verbo era Deus?

 

Algumas observações

1. Do ponto de vista literário, para fazer sentido, é preciso ler os versículos 1 e 2 juntos. Pois os dois versículos estão encadeados em um formato literário conhecido como paralelismo de escada ou gradual. Neste paralelismo, cada linha acrescenta um elemento novo à linha anterior, refinando a compreensão do assunto. Como em uma caminhada, passo a passo, ou em uma escada, degrau após degrau, onde se avança gradualmente.

Veja os degraus em negrito:

1a ‘Εν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος,
1b             καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν Θεόν,
1c                                            καὶ Θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος.
2                                                                 οὗτος ἦν ἐν ἀρχῇ πρὸς τὸν Θεόν.

2. Esta escada se cria pela repetição de ὁ λόγος – ὁ λόγος | τὸν Θεόν – Θεὸς | ὁ λόγος – οὗτος   Por isso o texto inverte a ordem dos substantivos em 1c sem prejuízo do significado.

3. No grego, e em outras línguas que possuem declinação, a posição das palavras em uma oração varia sem que isto determine a sua função gramatical, dado que as funções gramaticais são identificadas pelos casos, onde a palavra tem sua grafia modificada de acordo com a função que desempenha na oração.

4. O prólogo de João é um hino e o paralelismo é um recurso literário muito utilizado na poesia bíblica. Há, na Bíblia, paralelismos de escada, como o acima, e há paralelismos sinonímicos, antitéticos e sintéticos.

5. Olhando de outro jeito, pode-se dizer que estes dois versículos estão organizados em uma estrutura quiástica, no formato a-b-a’. Numa estrutura destas, o a e o a’ formam uma moldura em paralelo, enquanto o b é o elemento central, sem paralelo, o mais importante, para onde o olhar deve se dirigir. O quiasmo é uma construção literária em que os elementos são dispostos de forma cruzada, sendo o mais conhecido o a-b-b’-a’, como (a) João ama (b) Maria, (b’) Maria ama (a’) João. O nome quiasmo vem da letra grega X – ki.

Assim:

a. ‘Εν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν Θεόν,

b. καὶ Θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος.

a’. οὗτος ἦν ἐν ἀρχῇ πρὸς τὸν Θεόν.

6. Esta afirmação central καὶ Θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος é bastante interessante, pois temos aí dois substantivos no caso nominativo unidos por um verbo de ligação. Enquanto o primeiro substantivo, Θεóς está sem artigo [dizemos, do grego, que ele é anártrico = sem artigo], o segundo, ὁ λόγος tem artigo.

7. Assim, ὁ λόγος é sujeito, enquanto Θεóς é o predicativo para o substantivo anterior. A gramática fala de predicado nominal, onde o predicativo do sujeito é um termo que caracteriza o sujeito, tendo como intermediário um verbo de ligação.

8. O Θεóς anártrico não pode ser nome próprio em grego, donde resulta que Θεóς não pode ser o assunto deste texto, não podendo ser o sujeito desta oração. Ele é o predicativo do sujeito. Portanto, a tradução correta é: E o Verbo era Deus.

9. WALLACE, D. B. Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics: An Exegetical Syntax of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996, p. 42-43, aponta três critérios para se distinguir o sujeito do predicativo:
1. O sujeito deve ser um pronome determinado ou implícito no verbo, ou
2. O sujeito deve ter artigo, ou
3. O sujeito deve ser um nome próprio.

10. Lembrando que Jo 1,1-5, a primeira seção do prólogo, trata da relação do Verbo com Deus, com a criação e com a humanidade.

Referência
Byung Chan Go, ‘Belief’ and ‘Logos’ in the Prologue of the Gospel of John: An Analysis of Complex Parallelism. Thesis DTh – University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2009.

Disponível em https://scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10019.1/1383/go_belief_2009.pdf

Mito como narrativa e metáfora na Bíblia Hebraica

O artigo

Myth as Story and Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible

By Paul K.-K. Cho – The Bible and Interpretation: June 2019

I. Introduction

Allow me to begin with a bold claim that I can only begin to defend in this blog: Myth constitutes a vital part of the Hebrew Bible; it powerfully shapes the contours of biblical language, its various narratives, and theologies. That is, myth deeply defines what we might call the biblical world – populates the landscape with mythic monsters and deities and animates that world in which the God of Israel rises against forces of evil and, through victorious battle, creates order, erects his temple, and establishes his kingship.

Some readers will find the above claim objectionable. For example, some may argue that the Hebrew Bible is itself polemical against myth and instead espouses monotheism and a historical conception of reality. Yhwh, the God of Israel, the argument might go, says, “I am the First, and I am the Last; there is no god but me” (Isa 44:6). If there is but one God according to the Hebrew Bible, how can it contain myths with their many gods? And Yhwh delivers Israel in historical time, out of slavery, out of Egypt. If God acts in history, what need is there for myth?

Yet, we find fragments of myth throughout the pages of the Hebrew Bible, interwoven into genuine memories of the past, faithful representations of the present, and sincere hopes for the future. What more? Careful study reveals that myth shapes the biblical view of history in toto and thus the very reality in and through and toward which biblical writers lived. That is, we find that myth in the Hebrew Bible has not only to do with expression but also with being. Myth, it can be argued, constitutes a vital, even a foundational, part of the Hebrew Bible and the biblical world.

(…)

VII. Conclusion

That fragments of myth can be found in the Hebrew Bible is clear to anyone who has read it. That these fragments in fact give shape to the narrative plot of pivotal moments in the Hebrew Bible may come as a surprise to some. What more, we have only begun to understand the ways in which myth animates the biblical vision of the world – the foundational events of creation and exodus and the ongoing hope for redemption out of the conditions of exile and the cataclysm of the eschaton.

O livro

CHO, P. K.-K. Myth, History, and Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019, 259 p. – ISBN 9781108476195

This book examines the long-debated issue of the relationship between the Hebrew Bible and ancient Near Eastern myths. Using an innovative, interdisciplinary CHO, P. K.-K. Myth, History, and Metaphor in the Hebrew Bible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019methodology that combines theories of metaphor and narrative, Paul Cho argues that the Hebrew Bible is more deeply mythological than previously recognized. Because the Hebrew Bible contains fragments of the sea myth but no continuous narrative, the study of myth in the Hebrew Bible is usually circumscribed to the level of motifs and themes. Cho challenges this practice and demonstrates that the Hebrew Bible contains shorter and longer compositions studded with imagery that are structured by the plot of sea myths. Through close analysis of key Near Eastern myths and biblical texts, Cho shows that myth had a more fundamental influence on the plot structure and conceptual framework of the Hebrew Bible than has been recognized.

Paul K.-K. Cho is an assistant professor of Hebrew Bible at Wesley Theological Seminary, Washington, DC. His interests center on the interpretation of the Hebrew Bible, with emphasis on its literary texture and modes of producing meaning, particularly as they relate to the innovation and creation of worldviews and theologies.

Os textos bíblicos e a cosmologia antiga

The Structure of Heaven and Earth: How Ancient Cosmology Shaped Everyone’s Theology

The Bible is often difficult to make sense of without the proper conceptual framework. Why is Paul concerned about mysterious angels, principles, powers, forces, and archons in his epistles? Why are interactions with demons at the forefront of Jesus’ ministry in Mark? Why is heaven sometimes described as having different levels? Why does Paul describe people under the law as being enslaved to the elements? What motivated early Christians to worship a heavenly saviour? It’s hard to answer these questions without a detailed understanding of ancient Jewish and Greek cosmology, so I’ve spent a great deal of time reading the best books I can find on the subject. Much of what I learned surprised me; perhaps it will surprise you too.

É muito difícil entender a Bíblia sem a estrutura conceitual adequada.

Por que Paulo está preocupado com anjos misteriosos, principados, potestades, forças e arcontes em suas epístolas? Por que as interações com os demônios estão sempre presentes no ministério de Jesus em Marcos? Por que o céu às vezes é descrito como tendo níveis diferentes? Por que Paulo descreve as pessoas sob a lei como escravizadas pelos elementos? O que motivou os primeiros cristãos a adorar um salvador celestial?

É difícil responder a essas perguntas sem uma compreensão adequada da cosmologia judaica e grega antiga, por isso gastei um tempo lendo os melhores livros que encontrei sobre o assunto. Muito do que aprendi me surpreendeu, talvez também o surpreenda.

Fonte: Paul D. – Is That in the Bible? – 17 August, 2019

O Romance de Alexandre: história e literatura

O Romance de Alexandre é um relato da vida e das façanhas de Alexandre Magno. Embora construído em torno de um núcleo histórico, o romance é em grande parte obra de ficção. Foi amplamente copiado e traduzido, acumulando lendas e elementos fantásticos em diferentes estágios. A versão original foi composta em grego antes de 338 d.C., quando foi feita uma tradução para o latim. Vários manuscritos tardios atribuem o trabalho ao historiador oficial da expedição de Alexandre, Calístenes, sobrinho de Aristóteles, mas ele morreu antes de Alexandre e não poderia ter escrito um relato completo de sua vida. O autor desconhecido é apelidado de Pseudo-Calístenes.

Entre os séculos IV e XVI, o Romance de Alexandre foi traduzido em copta, guez, grego bizantino, árabe, persa, armênio, siríaco, hebraico e na maioria das línguas europeias. Devido à grande variedade de obras distintas derivadas do romance grego original, o “romance de Alexandre” às ​​vezes é tratado como um gênero literário e não como uma obra única.

O Romance de Alexandre é um texto difícil de definir e avaliar com justiça. Desde seus primeiros dias foi um texto aberto, adaptado em uma variedade de culturas com significados que variam, mas que ainda parecem carregar uma forte corrente de homogeneidade: Alexandre é o herói que não pode se tornar um deus e que carrega consigo os desejos e esforços das culturas hospedeiras.

 

STONEMAN, R. ; NAWOTKA, K. ; WOJCIECHOWSKA, A. (ed.) The Alexander Romance: History and Literature. Gröningen: Barkhuis & Gröningen University Library, 2018, XV + 322 p. – ISBN 9789492444714

The Alexander Romance is a difficult text to define and to assess justly. From its earliest days it was an open text, which was adapted into a variety of cultures with STONEMAN, R. ; NAWOTKA, K. ; WOJCIECHOWSKA, A. (ed.) The Alexander Romance: History and Literature. Gröningen: Barkhuis & Gröningen University Library, 2018meanings that themselves vary, and yet seem to carry a strong undercurrent of homogeneity: Alexander is the hero who cannot become a god, and who encapsulates the desires and strivings of the host cultures.

The papers assembled in this volume, which were originally presented at a conference at the University of Wroclaw, Poland, in October 2015, all face the challenge of defining the Alexander Romance. Some focus on quite specific topics while others address more overarching themes. They form a cohesive set of approaches to the delicate positioning of the text between history and literature. From its earliest elements in Hellenistic Egypt, to its latest reworkings in the Byzantine and Islamic Middle East, the Alexander Romance shows itself to be a work that steadily engages with such questions as kingship, the limits of human (and Greek) nature, and the purpose of history. The Romance began as a history, but only by becoming literature could it achieve such a deep penetration of east and west.

 

Resenha na Bryn Mawr Classical Review em 10.08.2019 por Chiara Di Serio, Università di Roma ‘La Sapienza’

This recent publication, edited by R. Stoneman, K. Nawotka and A. Wojciechowska, contains contributions dealing with several questions connected to a historiographic or literary interpretation of the Alexander Romance .

R. Stoneman’s remarkable competence on the Alexander Romance and the texts connected to it (as evidenced by his high-value monographies and articles), guarantees the quality of the contributions presented here.

Stoneman’s introduction explains very clearly that the problems connected to the use of the Romance as a source arise from its complex relationship to history and to literature. The Alexander Romance is difficult to classify with respect to genre: “it has elements of history, of biography, and of novel” (p. vii). In order to define the AR Stoneman borrows from David Konstan the expression “open text” (1). The AR raises the question whether an open text can be seen as a historical source. Stoneman also addresses the problem of the dating of the text, which according to him belongs to the 3rd century B.C.

The most significant segment in the introduction is devoted to the definition of the AR as “history”. Here Stoneman declares he shares the idea expressed by the philosopher Hayden White: “in creating ourselves, we create our past” (p. viii). Narration is a fundamental category that encompasses all that is written about the past and transforms the present into a completion of the past from which we wish to descend. Narrated history is therefore a mimesis of real history (2). These observations about the narration of historical facts and characters are very interesting because it is not only in the classical world that this type of narration often includes “mythical” elements that distance them from our positivistic and rational idea of history as the description of true events.

Later, Stoneman applies his considerations about the meaning of history to its use in the AR. He reminds that especially Thucydides maintained that events should be reported the way they actually happened. Lucianus also believed that history does not admit lies. In this way, though, history becomes a “transcendental matter”. But few historians followed Thucydides and neither lied nor changed some details, says Stoneman. Therefore, in Stoneman’s perspective, interpretation is inevitable.

He believes history can be conceived in another way, by attributing a “plot” to historiographic narrations. Biographies in particular, he writes, are a way to re-create past experience. Such narrations develop both through space and time and this applies also to the reconstruction of the meaning of Alexander’s career. But such meaning can vary depending on those who read or use Alexander the Great’s stories in different ages and circumstances. The “true” Alexander becomes irrelevant in light of the different meanings that were attributed to him.

An important matter that this volume does not address is that of the many letters (especially those between Alexander and Darius) mentioned in the AR. Stoneman believes that letters are fictional markers in ancient literature. The AR letters help to give the text the impression of truth. But given its heterogeneous style it is not possible to see a pattern in their inclusion in the text. It mould be useful to investigate further the use of such documents in historical narrative.

In conclusion Stoneman states that the AR’s “open text” originates as a historical narration but then acquires a “mythical” configuration as a literary work (p. xii), and as such it had a large influence both in both East and West (p. iv).

Stoneman ends his introduction by summarizing the main ideas contained in the essays that make up the volume. Abstracts of the individual contributions also appear at the end of the work. What follows below is a synthesis of their main points.

The first section is devoted to the definition of the AR as literature. I. Ladynin examines the passages in which Alexander is equated to the Egyptian king Sesonchosis. According to the author, this could be Egyptian propaganda exalting Egypt’s past as world leader. This past was revived with Alexander when he became Egypt’s legitimate sovereign, thanks to his creation of a new world empire. Traces of this fictional propaganda can be found in the texts by Dicaearchus of Messene and Pompeius Trogus.

Y. Trnka-Amrhein considers two texts, The Sesonchosis Novel and The Ninus Novel, as narrations deriving from the AR. She believes they show similar narrative patterns, especially as to their content. They deal with Eastern sovereigns, including Semiramis, whose stories can be compared with that of Alexander.

In his own essay R. Stoneman provides a definition of “wonder” that explains the AR’s position within Greek paradoxography. According to the author, wonders are presented in a natural way and provide the sources for later philosophical narrations. The AR is an “innocent text” that only narrates and does not interpret.

H. Manteghi examines the Life of Apollonius by Philostratus, who imagined his character’s journey as a repetition of Alexander’s itinerary towards the Eastern borders. Her analysis continues with the Persian version of the poem Iskandarnāma by Nizāmi that tells of a journey made by Alexander accompanied by Apollonius himself (Balinās). The author postulates that Nizāmi could have mistaken Alexander pupil of a pupil of Apollonius of Tyana with its more famous namesake. Moreover, Lucian’s dialogue Alexander sive Pseudomantis had probably collected several stories about the magician Apollonius circulating in Syria and in Asia Minor. In addition, Manteghi mention hermetical works as source of Nizāmi’s poem, in which Apollonius is a contemporary of Alexander. Manteghi further speculates about the existence of popular stories on Apollonius’ magical feats, as those mentioned by John Tzetzes, which were applied to Nizāmi’s narrative. Finally, an important role might be attributed to a Zoroastrian tradition on Nizāmi’s tales originating in Azerbaijan, where that culture was spread.

D. Selden’s study sets out from the observation that Indian literature shows only feeble traces of Alexander’s invasion of Punjāb, while classical historians deal extensively with it. These tales build a coherent picture that reveals the features of a “mythologie blanche” (according to an expression used by J. Derrida, see p. 82), where several episodes of a pseudo- philosophical nature are inserted. The Indian narrations of the Sassanide period reveal, if compared with the Greek ones, the point of view from which the classical Greek tradition reports those episodes. Selden then dwells on the description of Poros, provided by Diodorus Siculus, that represents an Indian double of Alexander and evokes a complementary image of the king, placed in a circumscribed world that differs from Greek culture.

The second section of the volume is devoted to the “bad” historical exposition of the AR. G. Oliver tries to analyse the AR from a political and economic point of view. He examines the context of the Liber de Morte that contains a will by Alexander in which he names the Rhodians as his executors. Oliver doubts whether this document dates to the late 4th century.

B. Garstad’s article focuses on what is apparently a gross mistake in the account of Alexander’s march from Italy to Carthage and Egypt in the AR, one that betrays a Roman point of view in its presentation of the relations between Alexander and the Romans. Up to the invasion of Persia from Egypt, Alexander seems concerned to defend his realm and collect his armies. Then he marches on, apparently to support Egypt’s relationship to the Greco-Roman world. The AR creates a sort of association between Greece, Rome and Egypt against their common Eastern enemies.

K. Nawotka believes that the author of the AR considered his work a historical treatise. He analyses the account of the battle of Gaugamela, which contains historical elements, although it is largely fictitious. The material used in the account comes from previous Greek works, but most of all from an Iranian account of the crossing of the river Stranga. The author of the AR uses several traditions, selecting from them in order to create the ideal image of a king. Moreover, he emphasises his erudition and originality compared to his sources.

H. Wulfram’s study focuses on the work of the translator Julius Valerius and the homogeneity of its style. He analyses Alexandria’s foundation pointing out the many thematic parallels with Virgil’s’ work. He believes that there is an “intertextuality of the second degree” in Julius Valerius’ s translation.

H. Baynham deals with the episode of Alexander’s death in the Metz Epitome that tells the story of how he crawls on hands and knees toward the Euphrates with the intention of diving into it and disappearing. She remarks that this peculiar detail is absent from Alexander’s historiography, except for Arrian. She compares other parallel accounts of the apotheosis of historical characters—Heracles, for instance, or Roman emperors. I believe that these last observations are very valuable for the definition of Alexander as a heroic figure, which we need to take into account when we consider the construction of his image from a historical point of view.

The third section of the volume deals with the influence of the AR. C. T. Djurslev’s essay examines the sources that precede the Armenian version of the AR, where the episode of Alexander’s gates against the assault of Gog and Magog can be found. He demonstrates that the apocalyptic significance of this episode was absent from its early versions where such “gates” stood for the borders of safe, known and “civilized” lands. In order to support his idea, the author analyses some passages from De excidio urbis Hierosolymitanae.

A. Klęczar investigates the Jewish texts that present Alexander in relation to wise men. She refers particularly to the treatise of the Tamid with the episodes of the meeting with the elder in Negev, the journey to the land of darkness, Alexander’s meeting with the Amazons and the scene of his arrival at the gates of Paradise. All this supports the image of Alexander as a universal sovereign.

C. Jouanno focuses on the use of the AR by the Byzantine chronicles. She comes to the conclusion that while the influence of the tales of Pseudo-Callisthenes on the chronographic tradition was common in medieval Europe, the opposite trend is quite rare. Her essay ends with a useful appendix containing an analytical table of the borrowings from Pseudo- Callisthenes in Byzantine chronographies.

The volume ends with E. Cottrell’s article on the circulation of the AR in medieval Islam and its reception in the Persian language. The intellectual activity of the Buyids shows the influence of this tale and of the Pseudo-Aristotelian Epistolary Novel. She examines in particular the Florilegium (Ṣiwān al-ḥikima) remarking its characterization of Alexander as pious sovereign. The author concludes that the Arab Alexander is even more monotheistic than in the Syrian versions, but that also the γ version of the Pseudo-Callisthenes presents Alexander as such. Finally, she observes that the role of the Buyid court in the transmission Greek philosophy and literature was important, and favoured the renaissance of Alexander’s figure.

One of the merits of this volume is the variety of the contributions showing how the “narrative discourses” of the AR – to use an expression of H. White – create the image of the past, or rather “found” what we like to call history.

 

Authors and titles

Richard Stoneman, Introduction: on using literature for history

I Defining the Alexander Romance as literature
Ivan Ladynin, Alexander – ‘the new Sesonchosis’: an early Hellenistic propagandist fiction and its possible background
Yvona Trnka-Amrhein, The fantastic four: Alexander, Sesonchosis, Ninus and Semiramis
Richard Stoneman, The Alexander Romance and the rise of paradoxography
Haila Manteghi, The king and the wizard: Apollonius of Tyana in the Iskandarnāma of Nizāmi Ganjavi (1141–1209)
Daniel Selden, Alexander in the Indies

II How to read ‘bad’ history
Graham Oliver, The Alexander Romance and the Hellenistic political economy
Benjamin Garstad, Alexander’s circuit of the Mediterranean in the Alexander Romance
Krzysztof Nawotka, History into literature in the account of the Campaign of Gaugamela in the Alexander Romance
Hartmut Wulfram, Intertextuality through translation: the foundation of Alexandria and Virgil in Julius Valerius’ Alexander Romance
Elizabeth Baynham, “Joining the gods”: Alexander at the Euphrates; Arrian 7.27.3, Metz Epitome 101-102 and the Alexander Romance

III Related texts: the impact of the Alexander Romance
Christian Thrue Djurslev, Revisiting Alexander’s gates against ‘Gog and Magog’: observations on the testimonies before the Alexander Romance tradition
Aleksandra Klęczar, The universal rule of Alexander in Tamid 32: an overview
Corinne Jouanno, Alexander Romance and Byzantine world chronicles: history cross-fertilized by fiction and the reverse
Emily Cottrell, Alexander at the Buyid Court

 

Notes:
1. D. Konstan, The Alexander Romance: the Cunning of the Open Text, in «Lexis» 16 (1998), pp. 123-138.
2. H. White, The Content of the Form. Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation, Baltimore 1987, e. g. 27, 29.

Leia Mais:
Text and English translation of the Greek Alexander Romance